STUDIES
IN
ANCIENT ART
AND
CIVILIZATION
18
JAGIELLONIAN UNIVERSITY
Kraków 2014
LIST OF REVIEWERS
Jarosław Bodzek (Jagiellonian University in Krakow)
Eliot Braun (W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research, Jerusalem)
Krzysztof Ciałowicz (Jagiellonian University in Krakow)
Teresa Dziedzic (Wrocław University of Technology)
Stan Hendrickx (Hasselt University – PXL)
Mariusz A. Jucha (Jagiellonian University in Krakow)
Klaudia Sala (Tadeusz Kościuszko Cracow University of Technology)
Kamil O. Kuraszkiewicz (University of Warsaw)
Ewa Laskowska-Kusztal (Polish Academy of Sciences)
Agnieszka Mączyńska (Poznan Archaeological Museum)
Ianir Milevski (Israel Antiquities Authority, Tel Aviv)
Karol Myśliwiec (Polish Academy of Sciences)
Franziska Naether (Universität Leipzig)
Janusz A. Ostrowski (Jagiellonian University in Krakow)
Joanna Popielska-Grzybowska (Pultusk Academy of Humanities)
Andrzej Prinke (Poznan Archaeological Museum)
Dietrich Raue (Universität Leipzig)
Sławomir Rzepka (University of Warsaw)
Teodozja Rzeuska (Polish Academy of Sciences)
Joachim Śliwa (Jagiellonian University in Krakow)
studies in Ancient Art
And civilizAtion
18
Universitas Iagellonica
de Antiquorum Artibus
et civilisAtione
studiA vAriA
Pars XVIII
Ediderunt
Ioanna Dębowska-Ludwin
Marius A. Jucha
Petrus Kołodziejczyk
Cracoviae MMXIV
Jagiellonian University
studies
in Ancient Art
And civilizAtion
18
Edited by
Joanna Dębowska-Ludwin
Mariusz A. Jucha
Piotr Kołodziejczyk
Krakow 2014
EdITORIAL BOARd
Ewdoksia Papuci-Władyka (Editor-in-Chief, Jagiellonian University, Krakow)
Piotr Bieliński (Univeristy of Warsaw)
Eliot Braun (W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research, Jerusalem)
Krzysztof M. Ciałowicz (Jagiellonian University, Krakow)
Renée Friedman (British Museum, London)
Georgia Kokkorou-Alevras (National and Kapodistrian University, Athens)
Janusz A. Ostrowski (Jagiellonian University, Krakow)
Tomasz Polański (Jan Kochanowski University, Kielce)
Joachim Śliwa (Jagiellonian University, Krakow)
Michael Vickers (University of Oxford)
TECHNICAL EdITOR
Agata Dobosz
TRANSLATIONS ANd LANGUAGE CORRECTIONS
Authors and Ian Jenkins
COVER dESIGN
Szymon Szweda
LAyOUT
Marta Korczyńska-Zdąbłarz
ON THE COVER
Figurine of Bes, clay, Greco-Roman period c. 200 BC-AD 100
(Jagiellonian University Institute of Archaeology collection, inv. no. 518).
Photo by Jakub Śliwa and Paweł Gąsior
© COPyRIGHT By
INSTYTUTARCHEOLOGII UNIWERSYTETU JAGIELLOŃSKIEGO &AUTHORS
KRAKOW 2014
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The 18th volume of Studies in Ancient Art and Civilization
is a special issue which contains proceedings
of the Sixth Central European Conference of Egyptologists.
Egypt 2012: Perspectives of Research
held on 5th - 7th July 2012 in the Institute of Archaeology,
Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Poland
Contents
Proceedings of the Sixth Central European Conference of Egyptologists.
Egypt 2012: Perspectives of Research held in Krakow
In memoriam Harold M. Hays (1965-2013).................................................9
Urszula Stępień
The lint industry of Tell el-Farkha in the Predynastic period
– old and new perspectives...................................................................11
Agnieszka Mączyńska
The Nile Delta as a center of cultural interaction between Upper
Egypt and the southern Levant in the 4th millennium bC...................25
Sakura Sanada
The implications of applying the vienna System to published data
on Prehistoric pottery in Lower Egypt.................................................47
Magdalena Sobas
bread mould potmarks from a Protodynastic and Early Dynastic
site in the Nile Delta, Egypt. A view from Tell el-Farkha....................65
Teodozja I. Rzeuska
In the shadow of Wepwawet. An early necropolis
on the Gebel Asyut al-gharbi?...............................................................83
Magdalena Kazimierczak
Pottery from Tell el-Murra graves. Seasons 2011-2012.....................101
Andrzej Ćwiek
Red and black world...........................................................................119
Joanna Popielska-Grzybowska
Picturing the pharaoh through language – remarks on the linguistic
image of the Egyptian king in the Old Kingdom religious texts........135
Natalia Małecka-Drozd
Notes on the origin of casemate foundation platforms
in ancient Egypt..................................................................................149
Johannes Stefan G. Auenmüller
The location of New Kingdom elite tombs – space, place
and signiicance..................................................................................171
Piotr Czerkwiński
The beard of Rameses vI...................................................................195
Grzegorz First
Polykephalos – some remarks on multi-headed nature of Late
Egyptian polymorphic deities.............................................................205
Maxim Kupreyev
The origins and development of the deinite article
in Egyptian-Coptic.............................................................................223
Wojciech Ejsmond, Łukasz Przewłocki
Some remarks on cat mummies in light of the examination
of artefacts from the National Museum in Warsaw collection..........239
Mariusz Izydor Prokopowicz
The ancient Egyptian second ininitive?
‘iw + subject + r + ininitive’ interpreted through the biblical
ininitive absolute and the Polish second ininitive............................259
Mladen Tomorad, Mislav Čavka, Igor Uranić, Kristina Šekrst
Current egyptological research in Croatia..........................................283
Debate
Amir Golani
More perspectives on the late prehistoric site of Qiryat Ata:
a rejoinder to Eliot braun...................................................................307
Editorial Note............................................................................................321
In memoriam Harold M. Hays (1965-2013)
I will never forget any of Harold Hays’ lectures. There may not
have been that many of them, but each one was diferent from any other
in its form.
We met for the irst time on Rhodes at the 10th International Congress
of Egyptologists, where he was speaking about Old Kingdom religious
texts. Although I did not completely agree with his reasoning, he impressed
me with the clarity of his argumentation.
Later, at the Old Kingdom Art and Archaeology Conference in Cambridge,
the audience and I were treated to a most stylish show. The manner in which
he presented his paper was something of which we Poles could only dream.
The last time we met was in Cracow at the Sixth Central European
Conference of Egyptologists. Egypt 2012: Perspectives of Research in 2012.
Here, Harold presented us with an even more spirited lecture relecting
his wide knowledge and open-minded perception of both the world around
him and also that of the ancient Egyptians.
I remember so well when Harold said to me: ‘I am anxiously waiting
for the day when you come to me and say: “I agree with you Harold.”’
but it never happened. Nevertheless, this was never a cause for animosity
between us and we both greatly enjoyed our discussions on the Pyramid
Texts.
We had many plans for future collaboration and for meetings and
conferences to debate our thought-provoking scholarly ideas. At every
conference we would spend hours discussing the Egyptological topics that
intrigued us, as well as our countries, our universities, our families and our
preferences in ilm and literature.
The news that Harold had passed away on 30 November 2013 left
all CECE participants in a state of profound sadness.
Farewell Harold…
Joanna Popielska-Grzybowska
DOI: 10.12797/SAAC.18.2014.18.01
Proceedings of the Sixth Central European
Conference of Egyptologists. Egypt 2012:
Perspectives of Research held in Krakow
S T U D I E S I N A N C I E N T A RT A N D C I v I L I Z AT I O N 18
Kraków 2014
Urszula Stępień
Krakow
THE FLINT INdUSTRy
OF TELL EL-FARKHA
IN THE PREdyNASTIC PERIOd –
OLd ANd NEW PERSPECTIVES
Abstract: Excavations of Predynastic deposits on the Eastern Kom
of Tell el-Farkha have yielded a small, yet revealing assemblage of lint,
as well as evidence of an agate workshop. The lint artefacts are mostly
similar to those from other sections of the site and are fairly typical
of the lint industry in the Nile Delta. The assemblage not only attests
to the impressive skills of local knappers, but also furnishes us with
information regarding the nature of the site’s relations with the rest
of northeast Africa, especially Upper Egypt.
Keywords: Tell el-Farkha; Predynastic period; lint; workshop
Tell el-Farkha, located in the eastern Nile Delta in the modern village
of Ghazala (about 120km northeast of Cairo), has been excavated since 1998
by the Polish Archaeological Expedition to the eastern Nile Delta under
the joint directorship of Professor Krzysztof M. Ciałowicz (Jagiellonian
University in Krakow) and Doctor Marek Chłodnicki (Poznań Archaeological
Museum).
The site, which dates from Naqada IIb probably all the way through
to the 4th Dynasty, consists of three sections: the Western, Central and
Eastern Kom (for more details see Chłodnicki et al. 2012). The latter
is the main focus of this paper. Investigation of the site’s lint industry
is based on excavations on the Eastern Kom conducted between 2001 and
2010 on deposits from Lower Egyptian culture of the Predynastic period
DOI: 10.12797/SAAC.18.2014.18.02
12
U. Stępień
(Naqada IID2-IIIA2, 3300-3200 bC). The relatively modest number of lints
found (545) can be attributed to the limited nature of research carried out
into the period thus far. This is due both to greater resources being devoted
to other areas of the excavation and also to high groundwater levels that
made work in the Eastern Kom impossible during certain seasons. Notably,
richer assemblages have been discovered in later deposits which have been
investigated more thoroughly. The Predynastic period settlement is set
to be excavated in the future.
A permanent settlement with houses and agricultural structures existed
during the Predynastic period on the Eastern Kom of Tell el-Farkha.
The earliest (1 and 2) chronological phases are linked to Lower Egyptian
culture,1 but the lint assemblages discovered from these phases contain few
whole artefacts. Later, it is possible to observe a new period of Naqadian
settlement. In Phase 3, the inluence of southern Egypt can be noted.
The assemblage from the Predynastic cultural layer comes from
across the whole breadth of the site and neither the structure nor the place
of discovery was noted. This cultural layer was explored at an arbitrary level
of 0.1m. Unfortunately, not all the sediment was sieved, which could be
a reason for the low quantity of lint discovered (particularly small size items
like chips or small lakes). The Predynastic assemblage has been kept apart
from items discovered in Feature 92 (to be described later on), which was
connected with lint work, although archaeologists did not fully investigate
it during the excavation. It was only after Feature 92 was discovered that
all the sediment of the ill was sieved dry. This could be the reason
as to why Feature 92 stone artefacts igure far more frequently than those from
the Predynastic cultural level (particularly in the case of small size items).
Of the 545 artefacts found dating to the Predynastic period (Fig. 1),
only 29% were excavated from the Predynastic layer of the settlement, with
the rest coming from Feature 92. Some of the artefacts may originate from
a chronologically diferent period, however, as they could be in a secondary
context as a result of the peculiar nature of the Eastern Kom. Numerous
ancient holes dug as graves, as well as various other types of pit, disturbed
the homogeneity of the collections amassed from all periods, particularly
the Predynastic one. Firstly, the assemblage from the Predynastic settlement
layer will be discussed. The Feature 92 assemblage will then come into focus
later on in the paper.
1
On the site, seven chronological phases of settlement have been distinguished (Phases
1-3 relate to the Predynastic period).
13
The lint industry of Tell el-Farkha...
debitage
Cortical lakes/blades
Flakes
Blades
Cores
Repaired cores
Chips, chunks and unidentiied fragments
Raw material
tools
Endscrapers
Perforators
Micro-perforators
Burins
Sickle blades
blades/lakes with retouch
bifacial knives
blade/lake knives
Other tools
total
Predynastic Cultural Layer
97
11
5
29
3
11
30
8
61
1
0
0
1
27
17
4
8
3
158
Feature 92
381
64
15
11
64
12
170
45
6
0
1
3
0
0
1
1
0
0
387
Fig. 1. Debitage and tool frequency comparison between the Predynastic cultural layer
and Feature 92 on the Eastern Kom of Tell el-Farkha
In the Predynastic settlement layer, debitage was most prominent (61.4%
of the assemblage; Fig. 1). The small amount of material discovered from
this period does not, however, relect the technological nature of the Eastern
Kom at Tell el-Farkha. When comparing the collection with the neighbouring
Central Kom (where the number of lint artefacts is higher), no diference
can be observed in their components. The blade technology predominant
across the whole site is of a local nature typical of the Predynastic period
in the Nile Delta region. Traces of production for local community needs
exist on the Eastern Kom, but the main production centre was most probably
situated on the Central one.
Two distinct trends can be observed in blade blank production. The irst
type produced long, slender, straight tools through a soft, direct impact.
The average length of such blades ranged from 45 to 75mm and they were
no wider than 15mm nor thicker than 5mm. The second type produced
14
U. Stępień
longer, broad, short blades from a single platform blade core. This was
typical of Predynastic production in the Nile Delta area. There is, however,
no evidence of this second type of blade blank on the Eastern Kom of Tell
el-Farkha. The blade blanks are mostly known from retouched blade tools
or blade knives. On the basis of these two groups of tools, we can estimate
that the blade blank average length ranged from 55 to 65mm, their width
from 30 to 35mm and their thickness from 8 to 10mm. They were created
by direct impact and the blades were irregular and slightly bent.
An element of debitage was found in the Predynastic cultural layer
of the Eastern Kom which connects the site with the preparation and initial
processing of cores (Fig. 2: 19). Treatment of the cores was not, however,
conined to a strict manufacturing pattern. The knappers did not know any
efective way of manipulating the raw material and it is therefore impossible
to observe any evidence of repair being carried out on the debitage. Damaged
fragments of cores or blanks were instead left abandoned, indicating that
workers did not attempt to either use or repair them.
Tools comprise the other 38.6% of the assemblage discovered. In certain
cases, individual artefacts from the Predynastic layer seem to have appeared
in a secondary context. This is clearly the case with the sickle blades, which
were not produced before Naqada IID2 in the Nile Delta (Schmidt 1992,
35).2 The most frequently occurring tool type is that of retouched blades.
Some (for instance blade knives with retouched edges) have a typical broad,
short, single platform core blade (Fig. 3: 8). Others have slimmer blades,
one example of this being an obsidian tool (Fig. 3: 7). This was the only
artefact created from this material to be discovered on the Eastern Kom.
Obsidian is very rare in and around the Tell el-Farkha site, but it occurs most
frequently on the Central Kom. Unfortunately, the obsidian blade discovered
on the Eastern Kom of Tell el-Farkha comes from an unknown outcrop.
This artefact could therefore have perhaps been brought to the site
as an already inished tool.
The remainder of the tools is largely made up of diferent types
of knives. Four bifacial knives feature here, as well as a small curved knife
with a polished surface, characteristic of the late Gerzean period of
Upper Egypt (Fig. 4: 4). The presence of this knife could be explained
by the population growth of the site, as it could have been part of a set
The sickle blades numbered 27 and their presence in the Predynastic cultural layer conirms
that considerable disturbance occurred in part of the ceiling layer. Similar assemblages
of tools and elements of debitage (without distinctive features) are impossible to distinguish
from those found in a secondary context.
2
The lint industry of Tell el-Farkha...
15
Fig. 2. Tell el-Farkha. Cores from the Predynastic period.
Drawings by J. Kabaciński (1-18, 20) and the author (19)
of goods brought in from Upper Egypt (the inished bifacial knives
and obsidian tools could also have come from here). The curved knife must
have been brought to the Eastern Kom from a workshop located elsewhere,
since there is no evidence at Tell el-Farkha of either the development
of bifacial surface treatment techniques or the polishing of surfaces during
the Predynastic period. This was probably also the case with another knife
(Fig. 4: 5). It may have had a round, slightly expanded end (the knife
is broken, so it is hard to speculate about its original shape), but its surface
traces indicating it possessed a similar kind of holder.3 The knife is crushed
3
In the picture (Fig. 4: 5), probable traces of the holder are indicated by little black spots.
16
U. Stępień
Fig. 3. Tell el-Farkha. Tools from the Predynastic period.
1 – Endscraper. Drawing by the author; 2 – burin. Drawing by the author; 3 – Perforator.
Drawing by J. Kabaciński; 4-6 – Micro-perforators. Drawings by J. Kabaciński;
7 – Obsidian retouched blade. Drawing by the author; 8-9 – Retouched blades. Drawings
by J. Kabaciński; (8) and the author; (9) 10 – bifacial knife. Drawing by the author
on a side edge (probably the result of use), but its function remains
unknown. Other kinds of carefully made knives (Fig. 3: 10) were probably
also brought in during the inal stage of human habitation of the Naqadian
settlement.
The most characteristic tools of the Predynastic period were blade
knives with retouched edges called Hemmamija A knives and they were
most frequently discovered in the Central Kom of the site.4 Knives with
4
The Hemmamija A knife term was used by K. Schmidt (1992; 1996) (a diferent type
of knife – Hemmamija b – does not occur at Tell el-Farkha) (van den brink et al. 1989).
D. Holmes (1989) named the same type of tool ‘blade knives’. This knife is also similar
to ‘Gerzean knife blades’ from Naqada II described by E. baumgartel (1960). These knives
are made of single platform blade core blanks and their characteristic feature is a straight
The lint industry of Tell el-Farkha...
17
Fig. 4. Tell el-Farkha. Tools from the Predynastic period. 1-3 – Hemmamija A knives.
Drawings by the author; 4-5 – bifacial knives. Drawings by the author
wide blade blanks existed in the earliest phases of the settlement at Tell
el-Farkha and these were either local imitations of Naqadian blade knives
(Kabaciński 2003, 201) or the more standardised Hemmamija A knives
(van den brink et al. 1989; Schmidt 1992; Schmidt 1996). These knives
were made with broad, short blade blanks with a characteristic retouching
on the bottom side or on both sides alternately (Fig. 4: 1-3). Only two
Hemmamija A knives were found in their primary context in the Predynastic
back which passes the upward pointing tip. Their surface has a regular retouch lake
on the left edge (the edge passing the arched top in a straight line). The right edge
is retouched from the bottom side. various types of retouching may be incorporated, but
it is always on the same side. In certain cases, they possess small separate handles, rendering
a retouch from the bottom side possible.
18
U. Stępień
layer of the Eastern Kom, with the other four being excavated from
a secondary context in the Protodynastic layer.
Hemmamija A knives are quite commonly found at Nile Delta sites
of the Predynastic period. For example, they occur at Tell el-Iswid (South),
where 15 kinds of heavily standardised knife made with a wide blade
were found. Fragments of a cortex on their surface were also preserved,
one of the characteristic features of this kind of knife. They also appear
at Tell el-Fara’in/buto (level II), where they were used for a fairly short
period (Schmidt 1992, 32). It is probable that single Hemmamija A knives
were also present at the burial site of Minshat Abu Omar (Kroeper and
Wildung 1994; Kroeper and Wildung 2000). Knives of this type are heavily
linked to the Upper Egypt area. The knives discovered at Tell el-Fara’in
/buto were not entirely standardized.
A blade endscraper (Fig. 3: 1) and blade burin (Fig. 3: 2) also featured
among the tools discovered.
During excavation, archaeologists paid much attention to Feature 92,
a pit illed with brown soil and silt. Within this feature, twice as many lints
and other stone artefacts were found than in the whole Predynastic cultural
layer of the Eastern Kom settlement. Pit 92 was probably in the shape
of a crescent.5 When it was discovered, the pit had an irregular shape with
a diameter of about 0.5m and a thickness of 0.1m (Chłodnicki et al. 2006,
91). The Feature 92 assemblage consists of 387 artefacts, mostly made up
of lint and agate debitage elements (Fig. 2).
The large number of cores is clearly evident in the debitage assemblage
of Feature 92 (Fig. 2: 1-18, 20), with most being single platform blade cores.
The cores number is 67 in total and they were all produced in a very similar
fashion. They are very small (thus suited to the production of irregular blades)
and were often made of small lint pebbles. The core was formed using
a single side impact to create a striking platform (lat and rarely cortical).
Flint workers did not use any kind of treatment to prepare the edges
of the laked surfaces and most of the cores had a cortical back and cortical
or splinter sides. The angle of impact ranged from 60 to 90 degrees,
particularly in the case of small, single platform cores. The negative aspect
of using laked surfaces is demonstrated by the irregular shape of the blades.
Flint workers used soft impact (also indirect impact) techniques.
During the excavation, archaeologists only discovered the edge of Feature 92. It was
assumed that the feature was actually bigger and that the size of the entire pit could be up
to 1.5m in width (similar to a feature on the Central Kom of Tell el-Farkha).
5
The lint industry of Tell el-Farkha...
19
The second largest group of debitage is represented by cortical blanks.
The large number of cores and blanks from the early stages of core preparation
indicate that specialist production occurred at the workshop. The chips,
chunks, and unidentiied fragments of this debitage form a very interesting
group of artefacts, since the majority of them are made of agate. A signiicant
group within the assemblage consists of raw agate pebbles (n – 32), which
characteristically had one single impact on their surface.
Feature 92 only yielded six tools, three of them being micro-perforators.
Only three micro-perforators were discovered on the Eastern Kom from
the Predynastic period in total, but on the Central Kom they were very
common. On comparing these with other examples from the whole
Tell el-Farkha site, a high level of standardisation of this type of tool
can be observed. One tool (Fig. 3: 5) had traces of usage at the edges,6
but the others did not appear to have been used at all (Fig. 3: 4, 6). These
artefacts were assumed to have been prepared for alternative usage,
a hypothesis proven by macroscopic observation. They would have
performed a very specialist function connected to the production of beads
from diferent stone material. Micro-perforators like those from Tell
el-Farkha were common in the Neolithic period and were also prevalent
during the Predynastic period in Egypt (Holmes 1992; Hikade 2004).
The presence of micro-perforators in assemblages from the Predynastic
period has been attested at other Nile Delta sites, but they are only
relatively numerous at Tell el-Farkha. A large number were discovered
in the Predynastic layer of the Central Kom, where a series of specialist
workshops with micro-perforators was encountered (Chłodnicki et al.
2006, 85). During the Predynastic period, Tell el-Farkha could therefore
have been a kind of bead manufacturing centre that produced ornaments
not only for its own usage, but also for that of neighbouring settlements.
A large number of agate ornaments (especially beads) have been
discovered in the vicinity of the site. The workshops of Tell el-Farkha were
of a specialist nature and a signiicant number of these beads could have
been produced at the site.
A series of sandstone plates and hammers were found in one workshop.7
The plates could have been used during the inal stages of bead and
This is only clear from macroscopic observation. The micro-perforators did not undergo
microwear analysis at the Tell el-Farkha site.
7
The sandstone plates and stone (non-lint) hammers are not part of my study. They are
mentioned in this article due to the signiicant role they play in Feature 92. The stone
artefacts will be examined by Dr. M. Jórdeczka.
6
20
U. Stępień
ornament shaping and also in connection with other objects, for example
in the polishing of the surface of bifacial knives.8 Two quartz hammers
made with great thoroughness must have constituted a highly important
element of the workshop’s equipment (Chłodnicki et al. 2006, 91, ig. 13,
pl. Xv: 2).
Micro-perforators were only present at sites in Upper Egypt
in the Predynastic period, for example in Hierakonpolis (Holmes 1992;
Hikade 2004). In fact, micro-perforators made up almost 34% of the tool
inventory here (Holmes 1992, 43). One feature of the site was a specialist
workshop, where D. Holmes (1992) singled out 33 types of this type of tool.
In addition, a large amount of debitage and many inished bead products
were found (Hikade 2004). A huge number of beads were produced in this
workshop, most probably enough to also meet the needs of its surrounding
areas. Similar workshops from the Predynastic period were found at Abydos,
where more than 300 examples of micro-perforators, as well as raw material
and debitage fragments of agate and carnelian were excavated (Peet 1914,
3-4, pl. IIa). Within the area of the Nile Delta, Tell el-Farkha is the only site
where bead making workshops have been found. The Eastern and Central
Kom both possessed small, single-person workshops grouped in clusters
within the same settlement.
In Feature 92, one perforator (Fig. 3: 3) with a slim blade was discovered.
Perforators were not standardised tools in the Predynastic period, as their
appearance depended on the kind of blank and raw material used, as well as
the skills of the lint worker in question.
The inal two artefacts from Feature 92 are a retouched blade (retouched
across the whole surface with a slim blade typical of the period; Fig. 3: 9),
and a bifacial thin knife (with a lat-convex cross section; Fig. 5). The knife
is also typical of the period. The central section and top of the knife bear
traces of usage (macroscopic observation rather than microwear analysis
was used). The function performed by both the retouched blade and
the bifacial knife is, however, unknown.
Feature 92 possessed mainly lint and agate elements of debitage. These
were largely small single platform cores that would have come from the initial
stage of the preparation of cores (mostly cortical lakes), chips and chunks.
The large amount of raw material in the form of pebbles (especially agate
pebbles) is also of considerable interest. Feature 92 could therefore be
We could not, however, observe any other evidence of this practice from the period
(although we consider it possible). The irst lakes from bifacial production or modiication
at this site come from the Protodynastic period.
8
The lint industry of Tell el-Farkha...
21
the waste pit of a specialist lint workshop. The ill has not been entirely
investigated, as its exact shape and
the illing procedure followed is unknown. For this reason, it is impossible
to deine the feature as simply the depository pit of a specialised workshop,
as knappers may have also worked at
the site. It is, however, certain that agate beads were made here. Over 30%
of the artefacts of Feature 92’s assemblage were agate blanks (mainly chips,
chunks, and raw material with marks
indicating knapping) and it is therefore
Fig. 5. Tell el-Farkha. bifacial knife
likely that agate knapping materials
from the Predynastic period.
were of great importance in the workDrawing by J. Kabaciński
shop. Specialist tools such as microperforators (closely related to the production of beads) were also found
here.
The localised nature of Predynastic lint industry production can be
observed on the Eastern Kom of Tell el-Farkha. Its tool inventory indicates
similar patterns and technological features to those of analogous lint
assemblages in both other parts of Tell el-Farkha and at other Nile Delta
sites. The inluence of Upper Egypt is also clearly visible in the new
types of tool, the import of knives and raw material (especially obsidian)
and the ine quality lint. Feature 92 on the Eastern Kom and analogous
features on the Central Kom of Tell el-Farkha permit us to postulate that
these sites may have been agate bead production centres in the Predynastic
period. No similar workshop exists in the Lower Egypt area from this period
and micro-perforators have also not been discovered elsewhere in such
quantity. Only one specialist agate workshop was found on the Eastern
Kom with a rather poor assemblage dating to the Predynastic period. Future
research will, however, grant us the possibility to verify our hypotheses
on the spatial organization of the settlement on the Eastern Kom
of Tell el-Farkha and allow us to compare it to the settlement found
on the Central one.
22
U. Stępień
references
baumgartel e. 1960. The Cultures of Prehistoric Egypt, part 2. Oxford.
brink e. c. m. van den, schmidt K., boessneck J., driesch A. von den
and roller G.-J. de 1989. A transitional Late Predynastic – Early
Dynastic settlement site in the north-eastern Nile Delta, Egypt.
MDAIK 45, 55-108.
Chłodnicki M. and Ciałowicz K. M. with contributions by Abłamowicz R.,
Cichowski K., Dębowska-Ludwin J., Jucha M. A., Kabaciński J.,
Kaczmarek M., Pawlikowski M., Pryc G., Rewekant A.,
Skrzypczak M., Szejnoga P. and Wasilewski M. 2006. Polish
excavations at Tell el-Farkha (Ghazala) in the Nile Delta. Preliminary
report 2004-2005. Archeologia 57, 71-128.
Chłodnicki M., Ciałowicz K. M. and Mączyńska A. (eds) 2012.
Tell el-Farkha 1. Excavations 1998-2011. Poznań, Krakow.
Hikade T. 2004. Urban development at Hierakonpolis and the stone
industry of square 10N5W. In S. Hendrickx, R. F. Friedman,
K. M. Ciałowicz and M. Chłodnicki (eds), Egypt at its Origins. Studies
in Memory of Barbara Adams. Proceedings of the International
Conference ‘Origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic
Egypt’, Kraków, 28th August-1st September 2002, 181-197. (Orientalia
Lovaniensia Analecta 138). Leuven.
Holmes d. l. 1989. The Predynastic Lithic Industries of Upper Egypt.
A Comparative Study of the Lithic Traditions of Badari, Nagada
and Hierakonpolis. Oxford.
Holmes D. L. 1992. Chipped stone-working craftmen, Hierakonpolis
and the rise of civilization in Egypt. In R. F. Friedman and
b. Adams (eds), The Followers of Horus. Studies Dedicated to Michael
Allen Hofman (1944-1990), 37-44. Oxford.
Kabaciński J. 2003. Lithic industry at Tell el-Farkha (eastern Delta).
In L. Krzyżaniak, K. Kroeper and M. Kobusiewicz (eds), Cultural
Markers in the Later Prehistory of Northeastern Africa and Recent
Research, 201-212. Poznań.
Kroeper K. and Wildung D. 1994. Minshat Abu Omar 1. Ein vor- und
frühgeschichtlicher Friedhof im Nildelta. Gräber 1-114. Mainz.
Kroeper K. and Wildung D. 2000. Minshat Abu Omar 2. Ein vor- und
frühgeschichtlicher Friedhof im Nildelta. Gräber 115-204. Mainz.
Peet T. E. 1914. The Cemeteries of Abydos. Part 2: 1911-1912. (EEF 34).
London.
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23
Schmidt K. 1992. Tell el-Fara’in and el-Tell el-Iswid (South): the lithic
industries from the Chalcolithic to the Early Old Kingdom.
In E. C. M. van den brink (ed.), The Nile Delta in Transition:
4th-3rd millennium B.C., 31-41. Tel-Aviv.
schmidt K. 1996. Lower and Upper Egypt in the Chalcolithic period.
Evidence of the lithic industries: a view from buto. In L. Krzyżaniak,
K. Kroeper and M. Kobusiewicz (eds), Interregional Contacts
in the Later Prehistory of Northeastern Africa, 279-289. Poznań.
Urszula Stępień
c/o Institute of Archaeology
Jagiellonian University
urszulastepien@poczta.onet.pl
S T U D I E S I N A N C I E N T A RT A N D C I v I L I Z AT I O N 18
Kraków 2014
Agnieszka Mączyńska
Poznań
THE NILE dELTA AS A CENTER
OF CULTURAL INTERACTION BETWEEN
UPPER EGyPT ANd THE SOUTHERN
LEvANT IN THE 4TH MILLENNIUM bC
Abstract: The societies occupying the Nile Delta in the 4th millennium
BC were not cut of from the neighboring regions of Upper Egypt and
the Southern Levant. The Nile River, which served as a transport route
between southern and northern Egypt, and the geographical proximity
of the Southern Levant to the Nile Delta were probably both factors that
allowed contact to occur between the regions. Whilst a signiicant number
of Southern Levantine and Upper Egyptian imports have been found at Lower
Egyptian cultural sites, the quantity of Lower Egyptian items from the same
period found in the Southern Levant and in southern Egypt is more limited.
This state of afairs did not occur by chance, which suggests that the scarcity
of northern Egyptian inds outside Lower Egypt can probably be attributed
to the nature of trade and the position of the Nile Delta in this period.
Although our knowledge of the contact of the Delta with Upper
Egypt and the Southern Levant is constantly expanding, many issues still
remain unclear, including that of trading patterns. Archeological research
currently being conducted in northern Egypt (mainly at Tell el-Farkha,
Tell el-Iswid, Sais and Buto) has provided us with new material that
adds to our understanding of the ield. From the most recent excavation
results, it would appear that from the very beginnings of its existence,
the Tell el-Farkha site in the eastern Delta was as an important exchange
center where the inluence of the east and the south came together.
The aim of this paper is to portray the interaction occurring between
the Delta, Upper Egypt and the Southern Levant in the 4th millennium BC
DOI: 10.12797/SAAC.18.2014.18.03
A. Mączyńska
26
on the basis of material found at the excavation site of Tell el-Farkha
in the eastern Nile Delta and to explain the role of the Nile Delta in political
and cultural relations between these regions.
Keywords: Nile Delta; interaction; Upper Egypt; Southern Levant
introduction
The Nile Delta, considered an almost uninhabitable swampland
in the Predynastic period (butzer 1976, 26), lay outside the interest
of archaeologists for many years. Although a few archaeological sites
existed in Lower Egypt in the irst part of the 20th century (e.g. Sakkara,
Helwan, Merimde-beni Salame, Heliopolis, Maadi), the Delta remained
terra incognita. The key factors which made access to archaeological sites
in this region so diicult were the high water table and the thick layer of mud
which had been deposited by the Nile on top of the oldest of them.
In the 1980s and 1990s, intense archaeological research in the region
led to the discovery of new important sites such as Minshat Abu Omar
(Kroeper 1988), Tell el-Iswid, Tell Ibrahim Awad (van den brink 1988a)
and Tell el-Farkha (Chłodnicki et al. 1992). In addition, archaeologists
also continued to work on previously known sites, such as buto
(von der Way 1988), to verify the chronology of deposits from Predynastic
and Early Dynastic occupation found underneath the ancient city remains.
The discoveries made in these times demonstrated the great importance
of the Nile Delta to those wishing to understand the past of ancient Egypt.
Two important seminars held in 1986 and 1990 resulted in two publications
(van den brink 1988b and van den brink 1992) on the archaeology
of the Nile Delta, which both show the growing importance of the region
in archaeological research. They continue to be important sources
of information for anyone involved in the archaeology of the area.
With several expeditions working in the Nile Delta region every year
from the 1990s onwards, our knowledge of the early occupation of the Delta
has naturally increased. The results of this work have aided our understanding
of human activity in the region in the Pre-, Proto- and Early Dynastic
periods.
There are very few traces of the occupation of Lower Egypt just prior
to the early Neolithic period. Only the remains of Epipaleolithic occupation,
called ‘Qarunian’, have been noted at the Fayum Oasis (Hendrickx and
vermeersch 2000, 35-36), whilst nothing of the period is known from
the Delta. It is possible, however, that the oldest Delta sites remain covered
The Nile Delta as a center of cultural interaction...
27
by thick layers of mud deposited by the Nile. Nevertheless, the number
of known archaeological sites indicating early human activity in this
region has increased over time. The remains of activity of the irst fully
agricultural societies in the north were discovered in the Fayum region,
at Merimde beni Salame and Wadi Hof. These discoveries provided the basis
for the diferentiation of three separate cultural units: Fayum A, Merimde
and el-Omari (Midant-Reynes 1992, 101-122; Hendrickx and vermeersch
2000, 36-39). As they are only known from the evidence of these single
eponymous sites, our knowledge of the cultures remains limited (Mączyńska,
forthcoming a).
The irst culture to spread all over northern Egypt is known as
‘Lower Egyptian’ culture (Mączyńska 2011). Most of the sites ascribed
to this cultural unit are located in the central and eastern parts of northern
Egypt. The western part, which is poorly known, requires additional
archaeological research before much more may be said of it. However, proof
of Lower Egyptian occupation has been registered here, as well as at buto
(von der Way 1992; Köhler 1996) and Sais (Wilson 2006; Wilson et al. 2014).
The origins of this culture have not yet been explained, but they are probably
linked to the Merimde and el-Omari cultures (Midant-Reynes 1992, 206;
Levy and van den brink 2002, 10; Midant-Reynes 2003, 53; Mączyńska,
forthcoming a).
Human occupation in the Nile Delta was inluenced by the environmental
and geomorphologic conditions speciic to the region. An important aspect
of the Delta landscape are the sandy-silt hills called gezira, or ‘turtlebacks’, which were not looded during the annual inundations of the Nile.
Almost all early settlements and cemeteries were located on top of them,
i.e. Kom el-Khilgan (Tristant et al. 2008, 467) and Tell el-Farkha (Chłodnicki
2012, 9). Geziras not only protected people from loods, but also ofered
fairly easy access to agricultural ields and pastures for grazing, as well as
to a rich supply of other food, such as ish and wild birds (Pawlikowski
and Wasilewski 2012).
In the middle of the 4th millennium bC, important cultural changes,
referred to as the Lower Egyptian-Naqadian transition, occurred. Although
the causes, the workings and the course of this process are still under
discussion (cf. Köhler 1996; buchez and Midant-Reynes 2007; Köhler
2008; buchez and Midant-Reynes 2011; Mączyńska 2011; Mączyńska,
forthcoming b; Mączyńska, forthcoming c), it is generally accepted that
at the beginning of the Naqada III period, the cultural division of Egypt into
Naqada culture (in the south) and Lower Egyptian culture (in the north)
28
A. Mączyńska
was replaced by a single Naqada culture which spanned the entire country.
The past thirty years of research in the Nile Delta have changed the area’s
status at the time from a sparsely populated region into a location harboring
sites key to understanding the emergence of the Egyptian state.
interaction between the nile delta and the southern levant
The societies occupying the Nile Delta were not cut of from
the neighboring regions and the relatively small distance between
the Delta and the Southern Levant was probably an important factor behind
the contact that occurred between them (Hayes 1965, 122; Wetterström
1993, 200). Although some early links connecting the regions can be found
in the material of the early Neolithic societies of Lower Egypt discovered
at Fayum, Merimde and Wadi Hof (i.e. imported objects, raw materials and
inluences on locally made objects), an interpretation of these inds is not
straightforward (Mączyńska 2008, 765-766; Mączyńska, forthcoming a).
At the beginning of the 4th millennium bC, the Lower Egyptian and Late
Chalcolithic societies probably entered a new phase in foreign relations.
Lower Egyptian culture is probably the irst to possess a signiicant number
of Southern Levantine imports at its sites. However, the number of Lower
Egyptian items found in the Southern Levant in this period is more limited
(Mączyńska 2008, 769-770). In addition, the presence of the Levantines
at the sites of buto and Maadi should be noted (Rizkana and Seeher 1989,
49-55; Watrin 2000; Faltings 2002; Hartung et al. 2003).
Due to the scarcity of records concerning early relations between
the Nile Delta and the Southern Levant, interpretations of them are both few
in number and rather unimpressive; most are limited to statements simply
mentioning the sporadic character of contact between the regions. Most
authors indicate that the exchange of goods and ideas was the main motivation
for early contact (Levy and van den brink 2002, 18-19; de Miroschedji 2002,
39-40; braun and van den brink 2008, 644-650; Guyot 2008, 709-714; braun
2011, 107-108). According to P. de Miroschedji (2002) and F. Guyot (2008),
the Levantines were the ones who facilitated this exchange. According
to de Miroschedji (2002, 39-40), the irst Levantines appeared in Lower
Egypt in order to assess the resources of the region. In the opinion
of Guyot (2008, 714), the Lower and Upper Egyptian peoples participated
in the exchange rather than organized it.
The character of relations between Egypt and the Southern Levant altered
after the Lower Egyptian-Naqadian transition, which led to the cultural
The Nile Delta as a center of cultural interaction...
29
uniication of Lower and Upper Egypt. According to de Miroschedji
(2002, 41-42), in Early bronze Ib (contemporary with Naqada IIIA1
and buto III), ‘a massive expansion of Egypt to the east’ (which even
included the colonization of southwestern Canaan by the Egyptians)
occurred. However, according to E. braun (2002, 181-183), archaeological
records do not yet provide suicient evidence to support the notion
of Egyptian presence in the Southern Levant. He also underlines the fact
that the nature of interaction between the Egyptians and the Southern
Levantines was complicated and that its intensity changed over time.
Interaction between the Nile Delta and Upper Egypt
Relations between the Nile Delta and Upper Egypt prior to the Naqada
IIC period are also described as sporadic. Underlying evidence is rather poor
and mostly limited to Naqadian imports in the north and some Lower Egyptian
items found at southern sites. Maadi is the site with the highest number
of Upper Egyptian items dating to the Naqada I and II periods (black-topped
pottery, rhomboid palettes, combs, mace-heads, bifacial lint tools) found
in the north. Upper Egyptian pottery has also been recorded at other sites
in the Delta, such as buto I and II (von der Way 1992, 104-106). In contrast,
only a few Lower Egyptian sherds and vessels have been registered in Upper
Egypt, found with material dating to Naqada I and the irst part of Naqada II
at sites such as Hierakonpolis (Adams and Friedman 1992, 322-325;
Friedman 2003, 10) and Adaima (buchez 2007, vol. 1, 123-124, 130, 132 and
vol. 3, ig. 3/96: 1). The Upper Egyptians’ desire for Southern Levantine
items and products is considered to be the main cause behind the exchange
which occurred. Naqadian items were ofered to local Lower Egyptian
society in return. Some products, such as the black-topped vessels, were
locally imitated, as was the case at Maadi. Although the Lower Egyptians
from Maadi used vessels imported from the south and imitated them,
they did not adopt the southern practice of using them as grave goods.
No grave of Maadi or Wadi Digla contained black-topped vessels, which
were probably used only in the settlement, for example in Maadi (Mączyńska,
forthcoming c).
Contact between Upper and Lower Egypt is visible in the changes
in the lint tradition of both regions. During Naqada IIb-IIC/D, the northern
production method of twisted blades reached Middle Egypt and then
Upper Egypt. As a result, the assemblages of southern sites (e.g. Adaima
and Hierakonpolis) contain a mixture of both northern and southern lint
30
A. Mączyńska
traditions (buchez and Midant-Reynes 2011, 851-852). bilateral interaction
between Upper and Lower Egypt is also visible in the assemblages of two
cemeteries at Gerzeh and Harageh, where a mixture of the two pottery styles
can be observed in graves (buchez and Midant-Reynes 2011, 845-846).
However, an opposing view is maintained by A. Stevenson (2009, 55-57),
who believes there is little evidence from the cemetery at Gerzeh indicating
direct material exchange between the community of Gerzeh and those
of the Lower Egyptian culture.
The second half of the Naqada II period witnessed more intensive
contact between the societies of Lower and Upper Egypt. The number
of Upper Egyptian imports, especially pottery, increased in the Nile Delta
at Tell el-Farkha (Mączyńska 2004, 435, 438-439) and buto (Jucha
2005, 55-56). This period is referred to as the Lower Egyptian-Naqadian
transition, during which both the Lower Egyptian and Naqada cultures
underwent changes (Mączyńska 2011; Mączyńska, forthcoming b). The most
important reason for this transition is attributed to the Naqadians’ desire for
the wealth of Lower Egypt and control over trade with the Southern Levant
(Siegemund 1999; Wilkinson 1999, 311; bard 2000, 58; Ciałowicz 2001,
74-77; Campagno 2004). This cultural transition is often called the ‘Naqada
expansion’. Most scholars who refer to it assume that there must have been
a movement of people involving the arrival of the Upper Egyptians in Lower
Egypt (e.g. Kaiser 1964; Kaiser 1985; Kaiser 1987; Kaiser 1990; Wilkinson
1999, 17; Ciałowicz 2001, 74-77; Midant-Reynes 2003, 45; Kemp 2006,
88). Since the Naqadians are considered to have been the dominant party
in this process, their culture is believed to have strongly inluenced or even
replaced local culture (e.g. bard 2000, 58-59; buchez and Midant-Reynes
2007; buchez and Midant-Reynes 2011).
Interaction between Upper Egypt and the Southern Levant
The interest of Naqada culture in the Southern Levant is believed
to have occurred following social changes in Naqadian society which
began at the end of Naqada I. This process is mostly evidenced by funerary
data, which indicates more and more important concentrations of goods
in an increasingly restricted number of graves throughout the Naqada II
period (Guyot 2008, 715). Social diferentiation fuelled the demand
for prestigious items denoting the special status of their owners, which
in turn must have led to the intensiication of interregional contact (Köhler
The Nile Delta as a center of cultural interaction...
31
2010, 39-40). Lower Egypt was one of the areas where much sought after
items were available. However, as typical Lower Egyptian objects were
innumerable at southern sites, Naqadians were mostly interested in items
imported by the Lower Egyptians from the Southern Levant. The low number
of Southern Levantine objects registered among materials dating to Naqada I
and the irst part of Naqada II at the sites of Middle and Upper Egypt
(cf. Watrin 2003, 568-570) relects the small scale of trade in this period,
as the demand for prestigious objects in the south had only just begun
to emerge. In return for Levantine goods, Lower Egyptians could obtain
Upper Egyptian items. Their number is comparable to that of Levantine
objects in the south, which also indicates the small scale of exchange in this
early period.
It is generally accepted that more intense trading began after the Lower
Egyptian-Naqadian transition (i.a. Guyot 2008, 719-730). In Naqada I and
the irst part of the Naqada II period, the Lower Egyptians could have acted
as intermediaries between the Upper Egyptians and the Southern Levantines.
The Nile was probably the main trade route along which the transport
of goods was organized. However, this hypothesis has been criticized
by S. P. Tutundžić (1989, 430), who suggests two diferent sources for
Southern Levantine pottery found in Maadi in Naqada II contexts. In 1993,
Tutundžić stated that Maadi could have had links with the Southern Levant
prior to contact with Upper Egypt, which could explain the diference
in the imported pottery found in the north and south of Egypt to a certain
extent. However, it cannot be precluded that other routes were used
at the time. D. E. bar-Yosef Mayer (2002, 133) has indicated another trade
route on an east-west axis, between southern Sinai and Upper Egypt, based
on her research of bangles made of shells found near Nawamis. However,
she does admit that interaction via this route was sporadic and that it was
probably organized individually, rather than collectively.
The Nile Delta as a place or center of interregional interaction?
In most interpretations of Egyptian – Southern Levantine interaction,
the Nile Delta and Lower Egypt are merely considered to be places where
this interaction occurred. The region is viewed as a passive site of interaction,
or even just as the background for interaction between the dominant Naqada
culture and Early bronze Age societies. Even the presence of Levantine
newcomers at buto and Maadi is always linked to trade with the Naqada
A. Mączyńska
32
culture. In most existing interpretations, the Nile Delta did not beneit from
hosting this interaction and the Lower Egyptians therefore did not capitalize
on their role as intermediaries in trade.
In my opinion, this widely held interpretation results from the generally
accepted traditional model of Predynastic Egypt, which sees it as divided
between the dominant (more developed and socially stratiied) Naqada
culture and the unspectacular, egalitarian Lower Egyptian culture (Köhler
1993; Köhler 1995; Köhler 1996; Köhler 2008; Köhler 2010; Mączyńska
2011; Mączyńska, forthcoming b). Our poor knowledge of Lower Egyptian
culture and the still limited number of well-excavated and published sites
in the region have also had an impact on scholarly opinion. I personally
believe that this passive role of the Nile Delta in interaction is highly
questionable, especially in the light of new discoveries at Tell el-Farkha.
the tell el-Farkha site
The settlement was occupied from Naqada IIb-C by a Lower Egyptian
community. The oldest Lower Egyptian occupation is divided into two
phases: the irst dates to Naqada IIb-C (contemporary with buto II)
and the second to Naqada IID1 and the beginning of Naqada IID2
(contemporary with the end of buto II and the beginning of buto III)
(Chłodnicki 2012, tab. 1). Occupation by Lower Egyptians was registered
on all three koms of the site and exploration of layers dating to the two
oldest phases have revealed remains typical of Lower Egyptian architecture.
Long furrows, remains of rectangular buildings of organic material,
postholes and storage pits are the most commonly discovered structures
at Tell el-Farkha (e.g. Chłodnicki and Geming 2012, igs 3-4, 7, 20-21;
Ciałowicz 2012, igs 2-3). Excavations on the site have also yielded a large
number of pottery, lint and stone implements typical of Lower Egyptian
culture. Additionally, pottery imports from Upper Egypt and the Southern
Levant have been discovered in both of the oldest phases (Jucha 2005, 55,
pl. 91; Mączyńska 2011, 897; Czarnowicz 2012a; Sobas 2012, 183).
A copper knife of Levantine origin found at the settlement is also worthy
of mention (Czarnowicz 2012b, ig. 1: 2).
The presence of imports from the Naqada cultural region and the Early
bronze Age Southern Levant at Tell el-Farkha has led to the conclusion
that the inhabitants of the settlement interacted with neighboring regions
(Pl. 1; Fig. 1). Although they do conirm contact and also probably trade,
they do not shed any light on the nature of the interaction occurring.
The Nile Delta as a center of cultural interaction...
PLATE 1
Pl. 1. Tell el-Farkha. Imports from Upper Egypt and the Southern Levant:
1 – Ledge Handle. Photo by M. Czarnowicz; 2-4 – D-ware. Photo by R. Słaboński
PLATE 2
A. Mączyńska
Pl. 2. Tell el-Farkha. Central Kom. The Lower Egyptian Residence:
1 – Phase 1; 2 – Phase 2. Photo by R. Słaboński
The Nile Delta as a center of cultural interaction...
33
At other sites in the delta dating to
the same period (Maadi and buto),
objects imported from the east and
south have also been discovered.
However, it should be stressed
that other discoveries important
to the understanding of interaction
between the Delta, Upper Egypt
and the Southern Levant have
also been made at these two sites.
Subterranean structures unearthed
Fig. 1. Tell el-Farkha. Import from
at Maadi are similar to those found
the Southern Levant: Ledge Handle.
at sites of the Late Chalcolithic
Photo by M. Czarnowicz
horizon in the beersheva valley.
They are believed to be traces of the presence of Southern Levantine
traders (Rizkana and Seeher 1989, 49-55; Watrin 2000; Hartung et al. 2003).
At buto, non-Egyptian locally made pottery forms have been discovered
showing a strong ainity to Late Chalcolithic pottery from the Southern
Levant. According to Köhler (1996), these foreign-looking vessels were
produced by groups of Canaanite immigrants who settled at the site.
As the quantity of this pottery diminished over time, she has also suggested
that the immigrants adopted Egyptian techniques and gradually abandoned
their own.
At Tell el-Farkha, two important discoveries associated with Lower
Egyptian culture have been made: the largest known brewery center and
the oldest mudbrick architecture in Lower Egypt (Chłodnicki and Geming
2012, 92-100; Ciałowicz 2012). Although at irst they may not seem
to be linked to interaction with the Naqada and Early bronze Age cultures,
a closer study reveals that they are an important source of information
for understanding it.
the brewery center at tell el-Farkha
The earliest structure connected with beer production discovered
at Tell el-Farkha can be dated to the Naqada IIb period. Exploration
of the oldest layers of the site has shown that the breweries appeared just
a little after the irst settlers, who built these irst structures of organic material
directly on top of the gezira. To 2013, six breweries have been discovered
on the Western and Central Koms (Fig. 2). All seem to have been very well
34
A. Mączyńska
Fig. 2. Tell el-Farkha. Western Kom. Remains of the brewery. Photo by R. Słaboński
planned to enable beer brewing just after completion of construction work
(Ciałowicz 2012). The oldest breweries in Egypt date to Naqada Ib-IIA
and can be found in the south at Mahasna, Abydos and Hierakonpolis,
where they form part of some of the most important centers of Naqada
culture (Peet and Loat 1913, 3-4; Geller 1992; Takamiya 2008). Considering
the fact that the breweries of Tell el-Farkha were erected later on and that
they were well-developed and properly organized, it seems that the idea
of beer production was copied from the region of its origin, Upper Egypt
(see also Adamski and Rosińska-balik 2014).
beer production required certain special vessels, namely large vats
used for ire and also for beer storage. According to S. Hendrickx et al.
(2002, 293-294), the earliest beer jars are Petrie’s types R81, R84 and later
L30, which were quite common in Upper Egypt in Naqada II and appeared
at Lower Egyptian sites towards the end of this period. The only exception
to this rule is Tell el-Farkha, where jars R81 and R84 appear coevally
with material dating to Naqada IIC, which in turn is contemporary with
the breweries (Fig. 3; Mączyńska 2011, 890; Mączyńska, forthcoming b).
Their early appearance at this site could possibly be explained by their
The Nile Delta as a center of cultural interaction...
35
function. If the idea of beer production originated in the south, the idea
of its storage could have also come from the same region. It is not possible
to determine who made these vessels, but Lower Egyptian potters were
probably able to imitate the work of Upper Egyptians. It is likely that they
could have produced them in the north using the same, readily available
Nile clay, especially since the production of early beer jars did not require
any special skills (Mączyńska, forthcoming c).
mudbrick architecture at tell el-Farkha
The oldest mudbricks discovered at the site were used to construct
breweries. The most common, D-shaped bricks, were used for constructing
external and internal walls and also for supporting vats. bricks with triangular
cross sections were used mostly inside kilns to support vats (Ciałowicz
2012, 155). However, mudbricks from the breweries were diferent from
those used to construct walls. On the Central Kom, a large structure referred
to as the ‘Lower Egyptian Residence’ was unearthed, situated in a wellorganized area divided into zones of difering function (Pl. 2). The residence
was surrounded by a double wooden fence, which was later replaced
by a thick mudbrick wall at the end of Naqada IIC. The wall was 1.6m
thick at the base and 1.2-1.3m at the top with slightly oblique sides.
The mudbricks used to construct it were of diferent sizes and were also
arranged in diferent ways in diferent sections of the walls (Chłodnicki
and Geming 2012, 92-97, igs 8-10). A similar wall surrounding the brewery
center was registered on the Western Kom (Ciałowicz 2012, 161).
The Upper Egyptian origin of this new technique of erecting walls
has been generally accepted (cf. von der Way 1992, 3; Wilkinson 1996,
95; Wengrow 2006, 82). However, these discoveries in Lower Egypt
show that the earliest use of mudbrick was also known in Lower Egypt
at Maadi (Rizkana and Seeher 1989, 55-56) and Tell el-Farkha (Chłodnicki
and Geming 2012). According to certain researchers, this is the reason why
it is more reasonable to link the appearance of the mudbrick technique
to the inluence of the Southern Levant rather than that of Upper Egypt
(Tristant 2004, 120; Sievertsen 2008, 794). The idea of erecting mudbrick
walls could have spread southwards from Lower Egypt in the same way
that the lint tradition did (buchez and Midant-Reynes 2007; buchez
and Midant-Reynes 2011).
36
A. Mączyńska
visitors in the nile delta
Interaction between diferent
societies is mostly based on contact between people and the most
common form of interaction is
the exchange of goods and ideas.
People engaging in such an exchange can play the role of traders
or inter-mediaries. Finally, the desires of a people can also be motivation for exchange (Renfrew and
bahn 2000, 351-352).
Archaeologists have only
noted the presence of newcomers
from the Southern Levant at buto
and Maadi. However, it seems
that the two groups who appeared
in the Delta did so for quite different reasons. It would appear
that the foreigners in buto settled
among the locals, but kept their
distinct cultural identity, as is relected in their pottery production.
Fig. 3. Tell el-Farkha. Jars R81 and R84 from Over time they adopted local techthe Central Kom. Drawing by the autor
niques and abandoned their own
(Faltings 2002). At Maadi, a group
of traders lived side by side with local society, but in subterranean
structures rather than in the standard houses found at the site. According
to I. Rizkana and J. Seeher (1989, 80), they stayed on the outskirts
of the settlement and were isolated from its other parts. In the opinion
of Maadi excavators, the traders visiting the site must have been forced
to stay longer on the site due to some transportation diiculties, for example
the annual inundation of the Nile.
A few interpretations exist concerning the organization of trade
between Lower Egyptians and Southern Levantines in the irst part
of the 4th millennium bC. These make reference to the exchange models
proposed by C. Renfrew (1975, 3-59). T. Harrison (1993) has suggested
the ‘down-the-line’ exchange model, which has goods circulating through
The Nile Delta as a center of cultural interaction...
37
several intermediaries between the Nile Delta and the Southern Levant
in this early period. However, L. Watrin (1998, 1218) has excluded the buto
site from this model, as he considers it to have been a center of maritime
trade with direct access to West Asian goods. He has also proposed a dualaccess trading exchange model in which small groups of foreign traders from
each region settled in small outposts in other regions, such as Maadi and Site
H (Watrin 1998, 1220-1221). According to Guyot (2008, 712-714), the most
appropriate term describing the organization of trade in this early period
is ‘from neighbor to neighbor contacts’, stressing the multidirectional aspect
of neighborly exchange. Moreover, he believes that the model of exchange
was random and that the Lower Egyptians only disposed of exogenous goods
that were randomly dispatched to them.
The presence of newcomers from the south has not been conirmed
at any site in Lower Egypt. This situation seems strange considering
the widely accepted notion of Naqadian expansion and the arrival
of the Naqadians in the north. Moreover, recent discoveries in Lower Egypt
have shown that the process of cultural transition between Lower Egyptian
and Naqada culture is not easy to explain (Köhler 1993; Köhler 1995; Köhler
1996; buchez and Midant-Reynes 2006; Köhler 2008; buchez and MidantReynes 2011; Mączyńska 2011). The idea of Naqadian expansion has been
criticized by E. Ch. Köhler (1995, 79-92; 2008, 7), who rejects the idea
of the arrival of Upper Egyptians as a cultural bloc or as an invasion from
the north. According to her, Naqada culture and Lower Egyptian culture
were not two completely diferent or opposing cultures, but facies which
developed in speciic geographical, ecological and social circumstances.
Moreover, for Köhler (2008, 13), there is a degree of uniformity between
the materials of Lower and Upper Egypt, which is the efect of interaction
between the two regions. She interprets this as movements of people, goods
and ideas, facilitated by the geographical conditions of the Nile and its
valley.
There is no doubt that the Naqada and Lower Egyptian cultures
were not as diferent as previously thought (Mączyńska, forthcoming b;
Mączyńska, forthcoming c). The uniformity of certain aspects of culture,
including utilitarian pottery, makes it diicult and sometimes even
impossible to diferentiate Naqadian from local, Lower Egyptian elements.
The inhabitants of the settlement at Tell el-Farkha (Phases 1 and 2) would
have had direct or indirect contact with Upper Egyptians. D-ware pottery
and the idea of beer production and storage seem to conirm this interaction.
Moreover, there is no evidence that the Naqadians exercised authority over
38
A. Mączyńska
this settlement or of any other dominance at the site in this early period.
On the contrary, the continuing occupation of the site by locals and their
continued production can be observed (Mączyńska 2011, 897; Mączyńska,
forthcoming b; Mączyńska, forthcoming c). It seems more proper to use
the term ‘Naqadian expeditions’ when referring to this interaction than
to call it ‘Naqadian expansion’ (cf. Mączyńska 2011, 899).
tell el-Farkha as a center of exchange between southern levantines
and Upper Egyptians
The largest and earliest breweries, the sizeable building called the ‘Lower
Egyptian Residence’, the earliest mudbrick walls and the settlement zones
devoted to speciic functions all denote the great importance of the settlement
at Tell el-Farkha in the irst part of the 4th millennium bC. All these features
appeared in the middle of the Naqada II period, before the Lower EgyptianNaqadian transition. Their special character can be additionally conirmed
by the fact that structures of this kind have not been registered at any other
site in Lower Egypt.
The size of the brewery center indicates that production exceeded local
consumption and suggests that beer was exported to other sites located
in diferent directions. The ‘Lower Egyptian Residence’, surrounded by
a double wooden fence, difers from the small and simple isolated
houses found elsewhere on the site. by the end of Phase 1, most certainly
in the Naqada IIC period, the wooden fence was replaced by a massive
mudbrick wall. This unknown construction technique was not used by chance,
but appears to have been intended to deliberately segregate its inhabitants
from those outside the compound, indicating that the building played
an important role for the inhabitants of the settlement. Finds from inside
the residence, including basalt and bone mace-heads, beads of gold and
stone (probably from a necklace), copper and lint knives and a fragment
of a ripple lake knife, also conirm its special nature (Chłodnicki and Geming
2012, 96-99; Czarnowicz 2012b, 352, ig. 1: 2). It is worth noting that 75%
of the vessel fragments imported from the Levant were excavated inside
the residence (Czarnowicz 2012a, 261, ig. 15).
In the opinion of the excavators of the site, Tell el-Farkha was a center
for long-distance contact and trade with Upper Egypt and the Southern
Levant (Chłodnicki and Geming 2012; Ciałowicz 2012). The settlement was
probably situated on a trade route and its position in the center of the eastern
Nile Delta facilitated the transfer of goods farther to the east and to the south.
The Nile Delta as a center of cultural interaction...
39
It was probably a meeting place for people of diferent origins (Naqadians,
Levantines and Lower Egyptians), who were presumably mutual trading
partners. Local society took part in and probably organized the exchange
of goods and ideas in an active way. Moreover, it beneited from this
contact by adopting new techniques and raw materials, as is evidenced
by the presence of mudbrick architecture and beer production and the use
of copper and gold.
This paper was prepared as part of The Nile Delta as a Center
of Cultural Interaction between Upper Egypt and the Southern Levant
in the 4th Millennium BC project inanced by the Foundation for Polish
Science (the PARENT-bRIDGE programme).
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Krzysztof M. Ciałowicz and E. Christiana Köhler
for their advices, remarks and help in preparing this paper.
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Agnieszka Mączyńska
Poznań Archaeological Museum
agnieszka.maczynska@muzarp.poznan.pl
S T U D I E S I N A N C I E N T A RT A N D C I v I L I Z AT I O N 18
Kraków 2014
Sakura Sanada
Krakow
THE IMPLICATIONS OF APPLyING
THE VIENNA SySTEM TO PUBLISHEd
dATA ON PREHISTORIC POTTERy
IN LOWER EGyPT
Abstract: Pottery discovered at Lower Egyptian sites has several
features that are distinctly diferent to those of pottery from Upper Egyptian
sites. In this paper, the manner in which data on pottery fabric from Lower
Egyptian sites has been classiied and presented in published reports will be
reviewed and certain problems stemming from this manner of publication
will be examined. On the basis of this examination, the type of classiication
that would be most suited to the integration of all published data on pottery
fabric at Lower Egyptian sites (as well as their features) and to the storage
of this data as an objective record for future analysis by other researchers
will be discussed. It would seem that, although the issue of problematic
and biased published pottery data still remains, notating data using a code
is one of the most promising methods. This classiication method is useful
as both a mnemonic device and as an efective means to record and classify
the pottery fabric data gathered from Lower Egyptian sites.
Keywords: Pottery; classiication; Lower Egypt; integration; the Vienna System
introduction
The vienna System is commonly used in many publications to describe
pottery fabric found at Lower Egyptian sites, even though the system
was developed on the bases of speciic material among which the period
DOI: 10.12797/SAAC.18.2014.18.04
48
S. Sanada
best represented runs from the 11th to the end of the 18th Dynasty. Is it really
the most suitable method to classify prehistoric pottery from this region?
Issues that relate to the application of the vienna System to published
data on pottery fabric from sites dating to the late Chalcolithic and early
Early bronze I periods in Lower Egypt are discussed below. based
on the discussions, it is considered what sort of classiication would be
most suitable for integrating the various published data on pottery fabrics
at Lower Egyptian sites with taking a promising new classiication system
as an example.
The prehistoric sites of Lower Egypt perspective
The division of fabric within the Vienna System is relatively loose in terms
of the classiication of fabric from the prehistoric sites of Lower Egypt
Fabric at prehistoric sites in Lower Egypt has tended to be classiied
mainly by its straw temper, since this is its major feature. Indeed, straw
temper is the most common and basic inclusion (or temper) in the fabric
found at all prehistoric sites in Lower Egypt. As a result, the size and
the amount of straw temper are key in the classiication process at each site,
especially when it comes to classifying Nile clay. This means that division
by size and amount of straw temper has been made in detail at many
Lower Egyptian sites in order to classify the range of straw-tempered Nile
silt fabric more accurately. It also means that the division of fabric within
the vienna System is ambiguous in terms of its application to fabric
possessing this feature.
Classiication in which the fabric and its surface treatment
are combined
The deinition and classiication of fabric at prehistoric Lower Egyptian
sites is often confused with its surface treatment, which is a further
problematic issue in the application of the vienna System to this fabric,
as well as its comparison to pottery from other sites. One reason for this
confusion is the fact that the fabric used at prehistoric Lower Egyptian sites
does not vary a great deal. Therefore, if a characteristic surface treatment
is found on a sherd, this treatment is built into the classiication to indicate
a characteristic of the fabric. Although this method of classiication poses
problems when applying the vienna system, as long as we use the term
‘ware’ (which is deined as a combination of three hierarchical attributions:
The implications of applying the vienna system to published data...
49
fabric, manufacturing technique, and surface treatment), there is no reason
why this classiication system should not be used for the fabric of prehistoric
Lower Egyptian sites. From this point of view, the classiication system
adopted at buto and Helwan (Köhler 1998, 3; Köhler 2005, 47-48) may be
regarded as efective, since a ive-digit number can be used to simultaneously
refer to several elements of a sherd (type of clay, surface inish, temper,
etc.) without mixing up the individual elements (e.g. 21421, deined
as the ‘standard fabric’ by E. Ch. Köhler [1998, 4], which contains a normal
amount of straw temper with red slip and polish on the surface). Fibrous temper,
a type of temper that has been observed in pottery at many prehistoric Lower
Egyptian sites, cannot be dealt with appropriately by the vienna System,
but it can be correctly described by the ‘ware’ classiication system at buto
and Helwan (see Fig. 1).1
Although the kind of temper should always be considered and noted,
even if it difers only slightly from site to site in the Chalcolithic and early
Early bronze I periods in Lower Egypt, this does not always indicate that
production technology at one site was superior to that of another. It is generally
thought that production in the Chalcolithic and early Early bronze I periods
in Lower Egypt was too simple (e.g. the limited usage of the potter’s wheel)
for the amount of temper to be intentionally or subtly manipulated.
For example, Köhler (1995, 87-89, ig. 4) describes the level of pottery
manufacture in Naqada IIc/d in Lower Egypt to be simply ‘household
production’. With regard to ibrous temper, she states that ‘this fabric might
have originated accidentally due to a lack of the usual material for temper,
which would not be surprising for a primary production’ (Faltings and Köhler
1996, 110).
The sections below briely discuss the application of the vienna System
to fabric at individual sites in prehistoric Lower Egypt.
This classiication is explained as follows: ‘This code is based on ive basic features.
The irst digit refers to the general character of the ceramics and ranges from ine to coarse.
The second digit stands for the sort of clay used, i.e. alluvial or Nile silt, Marl clay, or other
clays, such as non-Egyptian clays. The third digit denotes a range of techniques of surface
inishing from deliberately scraped, roughly smoothed with wet hands, well-smoothed,
(e.g. with a tool), to polished or burnished. The fourth digit records the presence and colour
of surface coating or slip and includes the options of no slip, white slip, red slip or another
kind of slip. Finally, the ifth digit refers to diferent kinds of temper. The option ‘normal’
stands for a typical mixture, which can be of diferent fabric depending on the clay.’
(Köhler 2005, 47).
1
50
S. Sanada
Category
Coarse
Medium
Fine
Alluvial
Marl
Other clay
Scraped
Rough
Smoothed
Polished
No slip
White slip
Red slip
Other
Normal
Mostly straw
Mostly sand
Mostly limestone/calcite
None or little
Fibres
Clay
Surface
inish
Surface
coating
Temper
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
0
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
Fig. 1. The classiication system adopted at buto and Helwan.
Reproduced from Köhler 2005, tab. 1
Maadi
This section will discuss the classiication system for the most common
wares of the Maadi site, Wares I and II (Rizkana and Seeher 1987).
If the vienna System were to be adapted to these, Ware I would correspond
to Nile b2-C and Ware II to Nile b2-ine C. This classiication
is in accordance with the fabric description presented in a report, although
no previous description or analysis has made use of the vienna System
(Rizkana and Seeher 1987, 24-26, 28-29). In other words, according
to the division within the vienna System, Wares I and II appear to be almost
the same kind of fabric.
The Maadi classiication is diferent in that both Wares I and II are made
of Nile silt, but they are distinguished by the size and the amount of straw
included, as well as their surface colour (Rizkana and Seeher 1987, 23-32).
It has been reported that Ware I temper includes grit in moderate amounts
The implications of applying the vienna system to published data...
51
(the size of which reaches a maximum of 1mm) and also medium to coarse
straw (over 2mm and very often longer than 10mm) in every specimen. Ware
II includes tempered grit (at a size of less than 1mm) and organic temper,
which is far less abundant than in Ware I (Rizkana and Seeher 1987, 28).
If we refer to the deinition of Nile b2 and C in the vienna System
(Nordström and bourriau 1993, 171-174, ig. 3), Nile b2 is deined
as ‘containing abundant ine to medium sand (0.06-0.5mm) and conspicuous
amounts of ine to medium straw (up to 5mm) with a few scattered coarse
straws’. Nile C is deined as ‘including sand from ine to coarse (from 0.06
to over 0.5mm) in size and from scarce to common in frequency, with straw
ranging from ine to coarse (from less than 2 to over 5mm) with an abundance
of coarse particles’.
The reason Wares I and II seem to be of the same fabric under the vienna
System classiication is that the deinition for each kind of fabric within
it encompasses a wide range not taking into account the size or the amount
of sand and straw (Nordström and bourriau 1993, 171-174; see also
Fig. 2).
This inconvenient issue not only occurs when the vienna System
is applied to fabric from Maadi, but also to that of other prehistoric Lower
Egyptian sites. Moreover, if a fabric is deined and presented as a certain kind
in a site’s report and given some leeway in terms of size and the amounts
of its inclusions, problems tend to increase. For instance, a single kind
of fabric presented in a site report classiication may correspond to multiple
groups in the vienna System. Equally, two fabric types distinguished
in a site report classiication could be precisely the same kind of fabric under
the vienna System.
A few further issues need to be taken into account when applying
the fabric types of the Maadi classiication to the vienna System.
For example, the surface treatment of Ware II is a signiicant feature, given
it is described as ‘red burnished ware’ in Maadi reports (Rizkana and Seeher
1987, 28). This means that according to Maadi classiication (Rizkana and
Seeher 1987), the fabric is thought of and classiied in combination with
its surface treatment. In addition, the fabric is actually described as ‘ware’.2
As fabric and surface treatments are dealt with completely separately
Nordström (1972, 60) deined the term ‘ware’ as ‘a speciic combination of technological
features, characterized by one fabric, or a set of closely related fabrics (clay, temper materials,
porosity, iring, etc.) and a speciic set of surface properties (basic colour, coating, surface
texture)’. Renée F. Friedman (1994, 109) also suggests that ware, as a modern concept,
represents a combination of three hierarchical attributions: fabric, manufacturing technique
and surface treatment.
2
52
S. Sanada
Hardness
Hard and irm
Medium strength
Crumbly and soft
dense
Porosity
Decomposed limestone
Elongated porous
Moderately porous
Open porous texture
Carbonized grains
Red-brown grains
Crushed sherds
Rounded sand grain
Silica formations
Plant material
Shells/fossils
Miscellaneous inclusions
Grey white grain
Limestone
Non-plastic inclusions
Other inclusions
Dark rock material
Coarse >500μ
Medium 250-500
Fine 60-250μ
Straw
Coarse >5mm
Medium 2-5mm
Fine ˂2mm
Sand
Coarse >2mm
Medium 250-500μ
Fine 60-250μ
Clay
Foreign
Marl
Nile
Fig. 2. Recording the properties of the fabric, excluding the colour, porosity and hardness of fracture.
Reproduced from Nordström and bourriau 1993, 164
Incipient vitriication
The implications of applying the vienna system to published data...
53
in the vienna System, the ‘wares’ at Maadi, as classiied by I. Rizkana and
J. Seeher (1987), cannot be easily transposed to the vienna System.
Buto
This section will discuss Wares I and II in the buto classiication, which
are the irst and second most common at the site. In a report (von der Way
1997, 85), it is stated that ‘the fabric of all subgroups of Ware I at buto
(from Ware Ia to Ware Ig) are homogeneous, and the subgroups are classiied
depending on the surface treatment’. In addition, T. von der Way (1997, 84)
asserts that ‘Ware I at buto corresponds to Ware I at Maadi’. From this
description and from a description of the tempered minerals and their size
in Ware I (von der Way 1997, 84), it would appear that Ware I of the buto
classiication corresponds to Nile b2 to C in the vienna System. In addition,
it is stated that Ware II is equivalent to Nile C (von der Way 1997, 87).
This means that if we simply try to apply the vienna System to the fabric
at buto, Ware II seems to be a sub-set of Ware I (see Fig. 2).
So how are Nile b2 and Nile C described and distinguished from each
other in the vienna System and the buto classiication?
According to the vienna System, the predominant temper in Nile C
is straw temper (1-5mm in length) and it also has sand inclusions, which
range from medium to coarse in size (0.25-0.5 to over 0.5mm) (see Arnold
1988, 124; Nordström and bourriau 1993, 173). Contrastingly, in the buto
report, von der Way (1997, 84-87) says that the diference between
Nile b1, b2, and Nile C centres on the length of the tempered straw and
that Ware II (Nile C) sometimes includes much coarser sand (limestone
and/or pounded ceramics) and thicker sherds (mostly 2-3.5cm) than Ware I
(Nile b2-C) (including gravel sized 0.5-2mm). It has also been reported
in other studies that Ware II was mostly used for a particular shape of vessel
(Jar type 6b: von der Way 1997, 87, 91).
However, it has been argued that the distinction between Nile b2 and
C is not always clear. For instance, D. Arnold (1988, 126) discusses this
issue in light of the analysis of pottery from the early 12th Dynasty
at the pyramid complex of Sesostris I at Lisht, where she inds that
the coarse Nile clay used at the site is coarser than ordinary Nile b2,
but also that it contains markedly less sand than ordinary Nile C. Most
of the tempered straw in the coarse Nile clay of Lisht is 2mm in length,
which means that the clay is denser than the ordinary Nile C of the vienna
System. based on this analysis, Arnold (1988, 126) argues that there are
four variants of Nile b2 amongst the vessels found at the pyramid complex
54
S. Sanada
of Sesostris I at Lisht, ranging from one group that is closest to b1 to one
that is nearest to C. She also points out that ‘the main diference between
Nile b2 and Nile C in early pottery3 lies less in the size of the organic
particles than in the presence in Nile C of other materials, such as yellowish
white, decomposed limestone, and other dark-coloured rock particles’
(Arnold 1988, 126). Lastly, she says that ‘it is therefore often diicult
to diferentiate between Nile b2 and Nile C. The two fabrics appear to
be extremes of a range of variations rather than two truly distinct fabrics’
(Arnold 1988, 126).
Tell el-Iswid (South)
This section will discuss fabrics SO1 and SOM1, which are considered
the two most common in Phases 1 and 2 at Tell el-Iswid (South). They are
deined as ‘Nile silt tempered with medium to coarse straw’ (fabric SO1)
and ‘Nile silt tempered with medium to coarse straw and grit’ (fabric SOM1)
(Guyot 2011). Although it should be noted that only limited data is available
on both fabrics from the latest excavations, it is diicult to apply the vienna
System to them on the basis of the deinitions presented, because no kind
of Nile clay fabric without mineral particles (i.e. fabric SO1) exists within
it. If the vienna System were to be applied to the two fabric kinds with no
thought as to whether grit is included or not, both kinds would be deined
as Nile C and it would thus seem that they are both the same kind of fabric.
Incidentally, although the fabric data reported by E. C. M. van den brink
(1989, 67-68) is not classiied clearly, three diferent fabrics are deined:
one imported fabric and two kinds of Nile clay fabric tempered by straw
and distinguished by their surface treatment. Since descriptions of fabric
are rarely included in reports (van den brink 1989), it is diicult to tell
which kinds of Nile clay in the vienna system correspond to the two kinds
of Nile clay fabrics reported by van den brink.
Tell el-Farkha
This section will discuss R2 and P-Ware at Tell el-Farkha. In a report
from the site (Mączyńska 2004, 426), it is stated that R2-Ware corresponds
to Nile b2 – Coarse Nile C (Nile C2) in the vienna System and that P-Ware
is equivalent to Nile A to Fine Nile C (Nile C1). As we can see in Fig. 2,
it therefore seems that each of the two fabrics covers a wide range within
the divisions of the vienna System and that both share a large range with
each other.
3
Here, ‘early pottery’ refers to pottery from the early 12th Dynasty (Arnold 1988, 126).
The implications of applying the vienna system to published data...
55
P-Ware is deined by A. Mączyńska (2004, 426) as follows: ‘P: Red
slip ware; Petrie’s Polished-red class; Fabrics Nile A, Nile b, Nile C1.
The surface is covered with light red, red, or reddish-brown slip, polished
or burnished. The “Lower Egyptian” ibrous termer fabric was also recorded
among vessels belonging to this ware.’ This description indicates that
the classiication of fabric at Tell el-Farkha was achieved by examining
the surface treatment rather than the fabric itself. In fact, out of the ive fabric
groups identiied in the pottery of Tell el-Farkha, two additional ones were
made in the same way as P-ware was, namely S-Ware (hard smoothed ware)
and Y-Ware (yellow slipped ware) (Mączyńska 2004, 426). These fabric
classes cannot be simply transposed into the vienna System, because fabric
and surface treatment are treated as completely separately entities within it.
In other words, if the vienna System is applied to these fabric types at Tell
el-Farkha, they simply become indistinguishable from each other and from
other kinds of fabric.
Minshat Abu Omar
The following fabric types are said to have been found at Minshat Abu
Omar: Nile A, b1, b2, C, Marl A1 to A4 and others (Kroeper and Wildung
1994, XvI-XvII). However, if only the fabric types found in Minshat Abu
Omar 1 and 2 are counted, then only Nile b1, b2, C, Marl A, and a few others
have been discovered and reported (Kroeper and Wildung 1994; Kroeper
and Wildung 2000). The fabrics observed in Minshat Abu Omar 1 and 2
are not classiied in terms of ware and surface treatment in the excavators’
reports (Kroeper and Wildung 1994; Kroeper and Wildung 2000).
According to reports from Minshat Abu Omar, Nile C is by far the most
common fabric in the two phases (Kroeper and Wildung 1994; Kroeper
and Wildung 2000). In addition, even though it is certain that Nile b
is the second most common fabric type, it is unclear whether Nile b1 or Nile
b2 is more prevalent from the reports alone4 (Kroeper and Wildung 1994;
Kroeper and Wildung 2000). The mixtures of Nile and marl clay, which
are some of the most characteristic of Minshat Abu Omar 1 and 2 (they
have not been reported at other Lower Egyptian sites) are not recognised
by the vienna System (Nordström and bourriau 1993, 166-167).
In these reports (Kroeper and Wildung 1994; Kroeper and Wildung 2000), pottery is often
described as being made of Nile b (written as Ib) without clearly expressing the sub-group
of Nile b1 or Nile b2 (Nile b1 is referred to as Ib1 and Nile b2 as Ib2). Of the pottery
made of Nile b, the number of examples said to be ‘made of Ib’ is greater than those ‘made
of Ib2’, whilst the fewest examples are ‘made of Ib1’.
4
56
S. Sanada
The origin of the Vienna System perspective
The vienna System was created on the basis of sample sherds from
Tell el-Dab’a, Saqqara, Dahshur, and Thebes (Asasif, el-Tarif, and
Karnak North), as well as some unprovenanced Predynastic sherds from
the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge, Old Kingdom sherds from various
sites (supplied by barry Kemp) and badarian sherds from Matmar from
the collection of the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology
of Cambridge (Nordström and bourriau 1993, 168). Nordström and
bourriau (1993, 168), two of the archaeologists responsible for creating
the system, stated that ‘the chronological and geological limits of the vienna
System were set by the range of samples available. The Delta is represented
by material from only a small area in the East and there is nothing from
Middle Egypt beyond the Fayum or Upper Egypt outside Thebes. The period
best represented runs from the 11th to the end of the 18th Dynasty. Earlier
and later periods are represented by only a thin scatter of samples.’
After analysing pottery from the early 12th Dynasty found in the pyramid
complex of Sesostris I at Lisht, Arnold (1988, 126) concluded that there
were four variants of Nile b2 and also stated that the pottery fabric from
the early part of the dynasty was considerably diferent to that of the later
part. Whereas later Nile fabric is characterised by its notably variable size and
the nature of its organic inclusions, earlier fabric is far more uniform. These
observations suggest that even in the pottery of the 12th Dynasty, which
is considered by H. Nordström and J. bourriau (1993, 168) to be the pottery
most suited to the vienna System, certain diferences can still be observed.
As a result, variants also need to be devised in this group for the vienna
System to be successfully applied.
As the quality of the product largely depended on the scale
of production within each workshop, it seems unreasonable and illogical
to apply the vienna System, which was devised principally for pottery
from the 11th to the end of the 18th Dynasty and the Chalcolithic and
Early bronze I periods (see Fig. 35). Despite the disadvantages of applying
the vienna System to the fabric of Lower Egyptian sites, it is still commonly
used to diferentiate the diferent fabrics in publications.
In this table, the most (left) and second most (right) principal fabric at each site are shown.
The vienna System is applied to the two kinds of fabrics which are reported as the most
and the second most principal fabric in the report each site, with referring to the description
especially relating to type of clay, inclusion (temper), colour, and hardness in reports from
each site.
5
Tell el-Farkha
The implications of applying the vienna system to published data...
P-Ware
R2-Ware
Tell el-Iswid
Fabric
SOM1
Minshat Abu
Omar
Fabric SO1
Nile C
Ware II
Ware I
Ware 2
Ware 1
Heliopolis
Sand-tempered
ware
Straw-tempered ware
Nile E
Nile d
Coarse
Nile C
Fine
Nile b2
Nile B1
Ware I
Nile A
The vienna System
Maadi
Ware II
Fig. 3. Correlation in fabric and temper
Nile B
Buto
Sais
57
58
S. Sanada
discussion
The considerations presented in the preceding sections would seem
to suggest that the classiication system adopted at buto and Helwan
(Köhler 1998, 3; Köhler 2005, 47-48) has considerable potential. However,
the following characteristics of data already published on pottery fabric
in prehistoric Lower Egypt must be taken into consideration:
1. Most prehistoric pottery in Lower Egypt is made of Nile silt clay.
2. The most common and basic inclusion (or temper) to the fabric
found at all prehistoric sites in Lower Egypt is straw temper. This means
that division by the size and amount of straw temper is sometimes made
in great detail when classifying the various ranges of straw-tempered Nile
clay fabric.
3. In data published thus far on prehistoric pottery in Lower Egypt,
the fabric description is often combined with its surface treatment.
Even the classiication system adopted at buto and Helwan needs
to be revised before it can be applied to already published data on the pottery
fabric of prehistoric Lower Egypt. For instance, it may be wise to subdivide
the ifth digit (signifying temper) in order for the size of the straw temper
to be described in more detail. The six divisions for temper in the system
at buto and Helwan (normal, mostly straw, mostly sand, mostly limestone
/calcite, none or less, ibres) could also be replaced by other divisions (ine
straw,6 medium straw,7 coarse straw,8 sand,9 very coarse sand,10 limestone
/calcite, ibres [Fig. 4]). If necessary, multiple numbers could even be used
to describe the temper. We could also re-divide the third (surface inish)
and fourth (surface coating) digit of the buto and Helwan system (Fig. 1)
to better relect already published data on pottery fabric in prehistoric Lower
Egypt (see Fig. 5: ‘Surface treatment’).
For example, if this classiication system (Fig. 5) were to be applied
to R2-Ware at Tell el-Farkha, in which ‘the rough, wet smoothed surface has
˂ 2 mm in length (this numerical value corresponds to one in the vienna System;
see Fig. 2).
7
2-5mm in length (this numerical value corresponds to one in the vienna System;
see Fig. 2).
8
˃ 5mm in length (this numerical value corresponds to one in the vienna System;
see Fig. 2).
9
≤ 1mm in diameter (this numerical value adheres to bSI 2009, tab. 1a; Wentworth 1922;
Williams et al. 2006).
10
> 1mm in diameter.
6
The implications of applying the vienna system to published data...
59
Deinition
Fine straw
˂ 2mm in length
1
Medium straw
2-5mm in length
2
Coarse straw
> 5mm in length
3
Sand
≤ 1mm in diameter
4
very coarse sand
> 1mm in diameter
5
Limestone/calcite
6
Fibres
7
Fig. 4. Revised divisions for the temper of prehistoric pottery in Lower Egypt
Clay
Nile alluvial clay
1
Marl
2
Other
3
Temper
Fine straw ˂ 2mm in length
1
Medium straw 2-5mm in length
2
Coarse straw > 5mm in length
3
Sand ≤ 1mm in diameter
4
very coarse sand > 1mm in diameter
5
Limestone/calcite
6
Fibres
7
Other
8
Surface
treatment
Rough
1
Smoothed
2
Polished (burnished)
3
White slip
4
Red slip
5
Other colour slip
6
Other
7
Fig. 5. A classiication system modiied for the pottery fabric of prehistoric Lower Egypt
60
S. Sanada
voids from burned-out organic temper’ and ‘the organic temper (2-5mm)
is less coarse than that of R1-Ware’ (Mączyńska 2004, 426), the number
to describe this fabric would be 1-2-2. However, it would be diicult
to determine the number of P-Ware, because the potsherds were identiied
as belonging to this group purely by their surface treatment of reddish slip
(Mączyńska 2004, 426; Mączyńska 2011, 889-890); the fabric itself varies
greatly, as can be seen in Fig. 2. Although Mączyńska (2011, 889-890) states
that the fabric of P-Ware changed from Phases 1-2 to Phases 3-7, she also
claims that the fabric of P-Ware in Phases 1-2 is the same as that of R2-Ware.
As a result, the number of P-Ware could be thought of as 1-2-5 (Mączyńska
2011, 889). To use another example, if this classiication system were
to be applied to Ware Ia from Maadi (whose temper is described as ‘Ware I;
it is made up of Nile-silt clay that contains (a) grit in moderate amounts
in every specimen, the size reaching a maximum of 1mm, and (b) medium
to coarse straw, very often longer than 10mm’ [Rizkana and Seeher 1987]),
the numbers describing the temper would be 2-3-4. Ware Ia,11 which is made
of Nile clay and has a burnished surface treatment, would thus be described
as 1-234-3.
These examples demonstrate that even if data is described using
a classiication system developed at an individual site that is distinct, explicit
and detailed, it can still be classiied by a new or diferent system. In most
cases, however, the classiication of pottery data presented in published
reports from prehistoric Lower Egyptian sites is not distinct enough, mainly
because the classiication system adopted at the site is typically an individual
one and only a limited or selected amount of pottery and potsherd data
is provided. As a result, if fabric data has been classiied in an individual
manner or using a classiication system developed at an individual site without
the original detailed record of each item of pottery or potsherd (e.g. fabric
/temper and shape), it is very diicult for researchers to analyse the pottery
at the site objectively by simply referring to the publication it appears in.
It is also diicult to reclassify pottery data from such sites without
the opportunity to analyse the primary sources (pottery and potsherds)
found at the site (if possible, the primary sources of all pottery and potsherds
excavated there, or at the very least, the primary sources of the pottery
Surface treatment of Ware Ia is described as a ‘slightly burnished surface with moderate
lustre. A slip can occasionally be identiied. Mostly the surface is black, although irregular
patches of brown and red colour occur as a result of imperfect iring conditions’ (Rizkana
and Seeher 1987).
11
The implications of applying the vienna system to published data...
61
and potsherds presented in published reports) or the chance to re-examine
high-quality data (e.g. ield notes) recorded for all or most of the primary
sources.
There are several other problematic issues concerning already published
data on pottery from Lower Egyptian sites besides the one just mentioned.
However, if it is kept in mind that the data from Lower Egyptian sites
(especially data provided in older publications12) often includes bias and
a lack of objectivity, the system above (Fig. 5) could be applied to it.
This classiication, which places greater importance on temper (especially
straw temper), could be tenable and even practical for usage in future
excavations and publications.
For example, if the classiication system in Fig. 5 is applied to Ware 2 in the buto
classiication, which is described as being ‘made of Nile C. However, sometimes
it possesses coarser lime-washing pure bits and/or pounded ceramics in grain sizes
of 1-2mm additionally. Only four examples have slip treatments on the surface’
(Rizkana and Seeher 1987, 87), it will become 1-123468-1. Unlike the discussed examples
(Ware Ia at Maadi and R1-Ware and P-Ware at Tell el-Farkha), the number to express
Ware 2 at buto could become quite long, because the description of Ware 2 in the report
includes the vienna System, which is not clear enough to categorise the fabric utilised
in prehistoric Lower Egypt (see above: The prehistoric sites of Lower Egypt perspective)
and because the additional data and explanation of Ware 2 given is not suicient
for application to the classiication in Fig. 5.
12
62
S. Sanada
references
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brink e. c. m. van den 1989. A transitional Late Predynastic-Early
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BSI 2009. BSI British Standards Publication. Geotechnical Investigation
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Faltings d. and Köhler e. ch. 1996. vorbericht über die Ausgrabungen
des DAI in Tell el-Fara‘in/buto 1993 bis 1995. MDAIK 52, 87-114.
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Smythe J. and St. Clair B. 2005. Helwan 1. Excavations in the Early
Dynastic Cemetery. Season 1997/98. (Studien zur Archäologie und
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Analecta 138). Leuven.
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‘Origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt’, London,
27th July-1st August 2008, 879-908. (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta
205). Leuven.
Nordström H. 1972. Cultural Ecology and Ceramic Technology.
Stockholm.
nordström H. and bourriau J. 1993. Fascicle 2: ceramic technology:
clay and fabrics. In D. Arnold and J. bourriau, An Introduction
to Ancient Egyptian Pottery, 143-190. Mainz.
Rizkana I. and Seeher J. 1987. Maadi 1. The Pottery of the Predynastic
Settlement. Mainz.
Way T. von der 1997. Tell el-Fara’in/Buto 1. Ergebnisse zum frühen
Kontext Kampagnen der Jahre 1983-1989. (AV 83). Mainz.
Wentworth C. K. 1992. A scale of grade and class terms for clastic
sediments. The Journal of Geology 30/5, 377-392.
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Sakura Sanada
c/o Institute of Archaeology
Jagiellonian University
sakura.sanada@uj.edu.pl
S T U D I E S I N A N C I E N T A RT A N D C I v I L I Z AT I O N 18
Kraków 2014
Magdalena Sobas
Krakow
BREAd MOULd POTMARkS FROM
A PROTOdyNASTIC ANd EARLy
DYNASTIC SITE IN THE NILE DELTA,
EGyPT.
A vIEW FROM TELL EL-FARKHA
Abstract: This article focuses on potmarks from the Western,
Eastern and Central Koms of the Tell el-Farkha site. They date back
to the Protodynastic and Early Dynastic periods (up until the 1st Dynasty)
and are associated with Phases 4 and 5 of the settlement. 91 of the potmarks
have been identiied and analysed. They were all incised on wet clay and
covered either the inside or outside walls of bread moulds. 16 categories
of patterns have been distinguished: cross, criss-cross, vertical and
horizontal line combination, horizontal line, vertical line, curvilinear line,
rectangular-like shape, animal-like shape, plant-like shape, star-like shape,
arch-like shape, radial wheel shape, strokes on the rim, V-shaped sign, circle
and semi-circle.
Keywords: Potmarks; Protodynastic and Early Dynastic Egyptian
pottery; Tell el-Farkha settlement
This paper presents data gleaned from the study of pre-iring potmarks
found at Tell el-Farkha during exploration of the settlement.
The Tell el-Farkha site is situated in the eastern Nile Delta. Occupation
of the site has been divided into seven main phases dating from Lower
Egyptian culture until the beginning of the Old Kingdom (Chłodnicki 2012,
13; Jucha 2005, 19). This period of habitation allows a study to be made
of pottery traditions from the middle of the Naqada II period up until
the early Old Kingdom.
DOI: 10.12797/SAAC.18.2014.18.05
66
M. Sobas
The paper aims to describe potmarks discovered on the Western, Eastern
and Central Koms.1 They originate from the Protodynastic and Early Dynastic
periods (up until the 1st Dynasty), which coincide with Phases 4 and 5
of the site (Jucha 2005, 19)2 dating to Naqada IIIA1-C (Chłodnicki
2012, 13).
A corpus of potmarks from the necropolis at Tell el-Farkha has already
been studied by Jucha (Jucha 2008, 133-149). I instead focus on results
of work on potmarks retrieved from the settlement. I intend for this to only
be a preliminary report as I aim to later present a corpus of potmarks taken
from the whole settlement of Tell el-Farkha and to then compare them
with material characteristic of other settlement sites in the Nile Delta.
This article deliberates on potmarks taken from one group of pottery
only, that of bread moulds. In Tell el-Farkha, this type of vessel is present
in great quantity, particularly in Phase 5, as it makes up about 20 to 30%
of the whole pottery assemblage (Mączyńska 2004, 427; Jucha 2005, 112,
ig. 47; Sobas 2008, 99). bread moulds were most frequently used in everyday
life and also as daily oferings left outside tombs (Samuel 2000, 537-576;
Hendrickx et al. 2002, 294). The majority of bread moulds have comparable
rim dimensions varying from 20 to 35cm in diameter. The miniature bread
moulds are, however, decidedly smaller in size, possessing a rim diameter
from 13 to 17cm. On the Western Kom, individual examples are present
from both Phases 4 and 5.
The bread mould vessels are easily recognisable thanks to the material
used to make them. This was Nile clay tempered with medium-tocoarse sand grains and ine-to-medium chaf or coarse straw. Treatment
of the surface was rough and the exterior was dented, whilst the inside
was slightly smoothed. The bread moulds were lightly ired and the colour
of their walls’ surface varies from red to reddish brown to brown. Thanks
to the thickness of their walls and their resistance during iring, the bread
moulds could have been reused.
bread moulds began to be developed in Tell el-Farkha in Phase 4,
or Naqada IIIA1-IIIb (Chłodnicki 2012, 13). Their quantity increased at this
The potmarks analysed on the Western Kom originate from a part of the kom which
has been investigated since 2006. Research concerning potmarks from other koms
is based on both published material and that made available thanks to A. Mączyńska and
M. Rozwadowski.
2
Contrary to the Eastern and Central Koms, where settlements developed until the Old
Kingdom, the Western Kom was abandoned at the beginning of the 1st Dynasty – Naqada
IIIC1. For this reason, the paper focuses on potmarks from Phases 4 and 5 on all Koms,
which was the last phase of occupation of the Western Kom at Tell el-Farkha.
1
bread mould potmarks from a Protodynastic and Early Dynastic...
67
time and the vessels then became even more numerous in later phases. Most
bread moulds were shallow and wide in the Protodynastic period before
becoming a more medium shallow in the Early Dynastic period. One common
form was that of a rounded rim top with a slightly lattened or rounded base.
Examples also exist of slightly deeper forms, also with a rounded rim top.
bread moulds with a lattened rim top also stand out and these could be both
shallow and slightly deeper. Other deeper, shallow forms with a concave
rim top were not as common as those previously mentioned, but they may
have had a body divided into two zones (Jucha 2005, pls 68-73). Aside from
these, examples with a rim thickened on the inside and tops cut diagonally
inwards or outwards were also found (Mączyńska 2009, 98, 100).
Most of the pottery assemblage from the settlement site in Tell el-Farkha
is of a very fragmentary nature, as both potsherds and potmark patterns are
in most cases in a poor state of preservation. This makes both the interpretation
of the markings and their classiication into groups more challenging. Bread
moulds are, however, one of the most numerous groups bearing potmarks
from the Protodynastic and Early Dynastic periods. Moreover, the quantity
of marks engraved on the moulds seems to indicate that mass production
of such pots occurred.
Potmarks from the settlement were analysed in two diferent ways.
The irst was based on ceramic typology using the classes of R1 (rough
coarse ware). The second method was also based on this group and focused
on the preliminary typology of marks.3
91 potmarks were identiied and analysed. All of them came from bread
moulds from Phases 4 and 5. 24 of them originated from the Western Kom,
52 from the Eastern and 15 from the Central.
In the Protodynastic and Early Dynastic periods, potmarks were
predominantly made before iring on wet clay. In the examples under analysis,
all potmarks were incised before iring. The majority of marks (59.4%
of the material analysed) were incised on the exterior walls of the bread
moulds, with the remainder found on the interior surface (Fig. 1). Such inner
patterns left a negative on the bread’s surface. Some examples, however,
included short incised strokes on the top of the rim and it is sometimes
quite diicult to interpret whether they were made before or after iring
(Gallorini 2009, 116). Potmarks were often made using either a sharp
or blunt instrument or a inger on wet clay prior to iring (Adams and Porat
Apart from bread moulds, potmarks were also engraved on jars, bowls and unidentiied
fragments of potsherds at Tell el-Farkha (Sobas 2010, 405-413; Mączyńska 2012,
138-144).
3
68
M. Sobas
Fig. 1. Frequency of particular signs on the exterior and interior sides of the bread moulds
bread mould potmarks from a Protodynastic and Early Dynastic...
69
1996, 98). In most examples, the potmarks applied to this type of vessel
consisted of either one sign or a combination of two to four marks (van den
brink 1992, 267). In most cases, sign interpretation is quite problematic,
but the results of analysis demonstrate that we can distinguish patterns such
as (Fig. 2):
1. Cross
14 marks are cross-shaped (Fig. 3: 1-14). Seven of them are engraved
on the interior surface (Fig. 1: Group 1) with the other seven on the exterior
(Fig. 1: Group 1). They cover bread moulds with various kinds of rims
such as: rounded (Fig. 4: 2, 9), lattened (Fig. 5: 6), concave (Fig. 6: 3-4)
and a sloping outside rim (cut diagonally outwards, Fig. 6: 6), as well as
undetermined sherds. 50% of the cross motif forms from the Western Kom
were discovered in its southern section.
2. Criss-cross
Eight bread moulds were marked with a criss-cross pattern (Fig. 3: 1522). Six of them were located on the exterior surface (Fig. 1: Group 2), with
two of them on the interior (Fig. 1: Group 2). They appeared on forms with
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Sign
Cross
Criss-cross
Combination of vertical
and horizontal lines
Horizontal lines
Vertical lines
Rectangular-like shape
Curvilinear line
Animal-like shape (?)
Plant-like shape (?)
Star-like shape
Strokes on the rim
Arch-like shape
v-shaped sign
Circle/dots
Semi-circle
Radial-wheel shape
Exterior
7
6
Interior
7
2
All
14
8
13
4
17
2
12
4
1
0
1
1
1
0
2
4
0
0
54
0
2
2
0
1
0
0
0
3
3
8
3
2
37
2
14
6
1
1
1
1
1
3
5
12
3
2
91
Fig. 2. A list of signs which were marked on the bread moulds
70
M. Sobas
Fig. 3. Potmarks incised on bread moulds from the Eastern, Central and Western Koms
of Tell el-Farkha. Drawings by A. Mączyńska (5, 9, 16, 18, 20-22, 27, 29, 31),
M. Rozwadowski (6, 10, 11-14, 17, 23, 32-39, 41, 42, 45-55) and M. Sobas (1-4, 7, 8, 15,
19, 24-26, 28, 30, 40, 43, 44)
bread mould potmarks from a Protodynastic and Early Dynastic...
71
rounded and lattened rims and on some undetermined sherds. bread moulds
with this type of potmark predominated on the Central Kom.
3. vertical and horizontal line combination
17 bread moulds were marked with patterns made up of a combination
of vertical and horizontal lines (Fig. 3: 23-39) arranged in diferent fashions.
The majority of them cover the exterior wall (Fig. 1: Group 3) of bread
moulds with rounded (Fig. 4: 1, 3, 5-6, 8, 10), lattened (Fig. 5: 7), sloping
outwards, concave or thickened inside rims (Fig. 7: 2, 4). Most of the marks
are not very well preserved, which makes it hard to determine the entire
design in all cases. One example does, however, clearly take the shape
of a ladder. Some other forms merely consist of single or multiple lines
going in horizontal and vertical directions.
4. Horizontal lines
Two forms are marked with straight horizontal (Fig. 3: 40)
or diagonal (Figs 3: 41, 5: 2) lines. both are marked on the exterior surface
(Fig. 1: Group 4). There are, however, many more patterns containing curved
and vertical lines.
5. vertical lines
14 such markings exist (Fig. 3: 42-55). 12 of them cover the exterior
surface (Fig. 1: Group 5), with two of them on the interior (Fig. 1: Group
5). Most markings consist of one, two or three lines and cover various forms
of bread moulds (Fig. 7: 1), including those with rounded (Fig. 4: 7), sloping
outwards (Fig. 6: 5), lattened, concave (Fig. 6: 7) and thickened inside rims
(Fig. 7: 3).
6. Rectangular-like shape
Six markings with a rectangular-like shape (Fig. 8: 1-6) were discovered
on various types of bread mould (Fig. 4: 11, 5: 4, 6: 1). Four of them appear
on exterior walls, with the remainder on the interior surface (Fig. 1: Group 6).
Several individual examples were also encountered:
7. Curvilinear line (Fig. 8: 7). This covers the exterior walls (Fig. 1:
Group 7) of a bread mould with a rounded rim.
8. Animal-like shape (?) (Fig. 8: 8). This covers the interior walls
(Fig. 1: Group 8) of a bread mould with a rounded rim (Fig. 5: 1).
9. Plant-like shape (?) (Fig. 8: 9). This covers the exterior walls
(Fig. 1: Group 9) of a bread mould with a lattened rim which slopes a little
bit outwards.
10. Star-like shape (Figs 1: Group 10, 8: 10). This covers the exterior
walls of a bread mould with a rounded rim (Fig. 4: 4).
72
M. Sobas
Fig. 4. Potmarks on complete or almost complete bread moulds from Tell el-Farkha.
Drawings by M. Rozwadowski (5-7, 9, 10) and M. Sobas (1-4, 8, 11)
bread mould potmarks from a Protodynastic and Early Dynastic...
73
11. Short incised strokes on the rim (Figs 1: Group 11, 8: 11). Two short
incised strokes cover the top of the rounded rim on this potsherd.
12. Arch-like shape
Three bread moulds were marked with an arch-like symbol (Fig. 8:
12-14). The markings were all found on the interior (Fig. 1: Group 12)
surface of bread moulds with concave and lattened rims, thickened inwards
(Fig. 7: 5).
13. v-shaped sign
v-shaped signs (Fig. 8: 15-19) were carved on ive bread moulds with
round, concave (Fig. 7: 6) and lattened (Fig. 5: 8) rims. Three of them are
located on the interior surface (Fig. 1: Group 13). On one of the vessels,
the v-sign is merely part of a combination of symbols with vertical and
horizontal lines. Another adopts the zig-zag pattern from the exterior walls
of the vessel. Yet another could perhaps be identiied as the hieroglyphic
Ka (Fig. 8: 19) (Chłodnicki 1995, 26, ig. 2: 24-27; Jucha 2008, 144, 148,
tab. 4A, ig. 3).
14. Circle/dots
12 bread moulds possess a carved circle (Fig. 8: 20-31). Most of these
appear on the interior walls (Fig. 1: Group 14). Two of the moulds have
small, impressed round hollows on top of their rounded rims lying at a fairly
regular distance from each other. Dots are also impressed on the upper part
of these vessels just below the rim (Figs 5: 5, 6: 2). The multiple impressed
dots cover either the exterior or interior surface of the vessels and are
arranged in a disorderly manner. Oval-shaped markings (Fig. 8: 28-31) cover
the lower part of four bread moulds. Three of them situated on the interior
and the other on the exterior surface (Figs 1: Group 14, 6: 10).
15. Semi-circle
All semi-circle markings (Fig. 8: 32-34) were carved on the inside
of the vessels (Figs 1: Group 15, 6: 8-9) on their lower part. One was carved
inside a form with a concave rim. It forms part of a combination of two semicircles linked by a wavy line (Fig. 6: 9). The marking would probably have
been part of a larger design, which has unfortunately not been preserved.
16. Radial-wheel shape
Two radial-wheel shapes (Fig. 8: 35-36) were carved on the interior
walls of vessels (Fig. 1: Group 16). One of them was on a bread mould with
a lattened rim top (Fig. 5: 3).
Most of the markings are very simple, geometric shapes taking the form
of crosses, circles or a variety of combinations of vertical and horizontal
lines. Moulds with only one marking make up 75.8% of the total, whilst
74
M. Sobas
Fig. 5. Potmarks on complete or almost complete bread moulds from Tell el-Farkha.
Drawings by M. Rozwadowski (2-5), A. Mączyńska (8) and M. Sobas (1, 6, 7)
combinations of two signs represent 14.3%. Three diferent markings (5.5%)
and four or more (4.4%) are signiicantly less common (Fig. 9).
Potmarks from Tell el-Farkha can be compared with marks from
other sites in the Nile Delta, such as Tell el-Murra (M. Jucha, personal
communication), Tell es-Iswid (bréand 2014, 156) and buto (Köhler 1998,
Taf, 42-46; Wodzińska 2011, 1090-1092), as well as with sites in Upper
Egypt like Adaima (buchez 2004, 682-685; bréand 2011, 1015-1041).
The most commonly occurring marks in Tell el-Farkha are combinations
of vertical and horizontal lines (19.5%) (Fig. 1: Group 3) and vertical
bread mould potmarks from a Protodynastic and Early Dynastic...
75
Fig. 6. Potmarks on complete or almost complete bread moulds from Tell el-Farkha.
Drawings by M. Rozwadowski (1, 5, 7-10) and M. Sobas (2-4, 6)
lines (15.2%) (Fig. 1: Group 5). Such markings are also known from Tell
el-Murra (M. Jucha, personal communication), buto (Köhler 1998, Taf. 42:
3, 44: 3, 46: 5; Wodzińska 2011, 1091, ig. 16), Tell es-Iswid (bréand 2014,
156, ig. 1: 2-3, 7-8) and Adaima (buchez 2004, 684-685, igs 7-8; bréand
2011, 1020, tab. 1, 1030, ig. 8). They cover various forms of bread moulds,
including those with rounded, sloping, lattened and concave rims.
76
M. Sobas
Fig. 7. Potmarks on complete or almost complete bread moulds from Tell el-Farkha.
Drawings by M. Rozwadowski
The next most numerous group is that of crosses (Fig. 1: Group 1),
which makes up 16.3% of the potmarks analysed at Tell el-Farkha. They
are also quite common at other sites such as Adaima (buchez 2004, 684,
ig. 7), where they were incised on various types of bread mould, but mostly
on those with rounded rims. The majority of the crosses were incised
on the exterior surface of the vessels.
The group of circle potmarks also stands out (13.04%) (Fig. 1: Group 14).
This group is also signiicant in buto (Köhler 1998, Taf. 44: 1; Wodzińska
2011, 1091-1092, igs 16-17), where the marking occurs on bread moulds
with rounded, lattened and concave rims, and in Adaima (buchez 2004,
684-685, ig. 708) and Tell es-Iswid (bréand 2014, 156).
bread mould potmarks from a Protodynastic and Early Dynastic...
77
Fig. 8. Potmarks incised on bread moulds from the Eastern, Central and Western Koms
of Tell el-Farkha. Drawings by A. Mączyńska (2, 3, 16, 32, 35), M. Rozwadowski (4-7,
11-15, 17-19, 22, 23, 25, 26, 28-31, 33, 34, 36) and M. Sobas (1, 8, 9, 10, 20, 21, 24, 27)
Although research on potmarks from the Protodynastic and Early
Dynastic periods on vessels such as jars, bowls and bread moulds has
intensiied over the past few years as more publications have become
available (Sobas 2010, 405-413; van den brink 2011, 1005-1013; Mawdsley
2011, 1043-1071; Wodzińska 2011, 1073-1096; Mączyńska 2012, 115-145;
bréand 2011, 1015-1041), the interpretation of individual markings is
still diicult to fully comprehend. Certain general theories have, however,
been propounded. Firstly, it is possible that potmarks could have indicated
M. Sobas
78
Fig. 9. Distribution of potmarks on particular types of bread mould
the work of an individual potter or workshop. Secondly, they may have been
connected to their intended destination. It is also possible that the markings
indicated the capacity of the vessels or the exact amount of product being
kept in the pot. The markings may not only have identiied the owner
of a pot, but also indicated the name of the potter (van den brink 1992,
276, note 4; Adams and Porat 1996, 98; Kroeper 2000, 216). In addition,
it has been claimed that potmarks played a signiicant role in the functioning
of Protodynastic and Early Dynastic administrations (Adams and Porat
1996, 107).
A wide variety of markings can be observed on the diferent types
of bread mould. These potmarks appear on both the interior and exterior
sides and on the rim, upper, middle and lower part of the vessels. It is much
easier to interpret potmarks incised on the inside of pots, as they would have
left an imprint on the bread crust which probably indicated the manufacturer.
The form used for the bread may also have speciied the recipient or could
have been linked to the contents of the vessel. It is much harder to try
to make sense of the markings which appear on the exterior walls of bread
moulds.
It is also far from simple to determine what type of relation the shape
of the potmark had with the type of bread mould. The markings mainly
cover fragmentarily preserved bread moulds which possess varying kinds
of rim. The number of potmarks analysed in this paper is too limited to draw
bread mould potmarks from a Protodynastic and Early Dynastic...
79
anything but preliminary conclusions. very similar designs are, however,
known to us from jars and bowls. To prove this, we can use research
on potmarks from the Western Kom of Tell el-Farkha. In this case,
it is perfectly clear that the most common marking on bread moulds was
the criss-cross sign, which also appeared on jars and miniature bowls
(Sobas 2010, 407, tab. I: 14; Sobas 2012, 187, ig. 3: 4). This diversity
in the type of vessel demonstrates that the markings could not have
indicated the product which was being transported or stored in the vessel
(bréand 2011, 1036). Similarly, in Minshat Abu Omar, 27 pots with
potmarks mostly containing the remains of ish and animal bones were
discovered, but the markings engraved on the surface of the pots varied
greatly (Kroeper 2000, 216).
It is also hard to assume that vessels from various diferent sites
were made by the same potter’s hand or by one potter’s workshop,
as the sites where they were discovered lie a long distance from each other
and distribution over such a long distance could have been problematic.
With these particular examples, it is most probable that we should instead
concentrate on the potters themselves and those receiving their work.
The potter or one of his helpers probably marked the vessels themselves
before iring, perhaps with the intention of counting quantity in order
to keep track of production. The potmarks on bread moulds could therefore
have been made in a workshop, but in Tell el-Farkha a workshop has yet
to be identiied. Although bread moulds with cross motifs have been found
all across the Tell el-Farkha site, the southern part of the Western Kom seems
to be the area where they are most concentrated. As a result of the way
in which the vessels were made and the assumption that potmarks were incised
before iring, it is likely that marking occurred at the place of manufacture
(Hope 1999, 126; Gallorini 2009, 119).
The fairly poor quality and high quantity of bread moulds, as well as
their use in everyday life, suggests that they could have been made
on site in domestic production. A relationship may also exist between
the form of vessel, the potmarks and the contents of the vessel.
Only a few analogous bread mould markings have been found at buto
(Köhler 1998, Taf. 46: 1-2), Adaïma (bréand 2011, 1030, ig. 8: 3-4) and
Tell el-Farkha (Figs 3: 17, 8: 1).
Finally, there could also be a link between the specialisation of the potter
and the particular shape of the bread moulds.
In brief, even though the potmarks were all made at one site, a variety
of motifs exist. This probably means that they were made by diferent potters
80
M. Sobas
or indicated a diferent type of production. Whether the mark was placed
on the inner or outer walls of the vessel seems to have been far from
systematic. It may have been done with a speciic purpose in mind, but we
cannot guess or explain it properly yet.
Taking everything into consideration, there is a genuine lack
of publications on potmarks from settlement sites. According to van den brink
(1992, 265-296), most of the published potmarks come from cemeteries.
So far, the largest number of published potmarks from a settlement comes
from Adaima (bréand 2011, 1015-1041), which contains 520 potmarks
mainly from the Predynastic period. After future excavations on settlements,
these statistics could, however be very diferent. New data on potmark
research may prove very signiicant in aiding the study of ancient pottery.
Finally, a detailed analysis of individual signs could be of great use
in interpreting the way in which the administrative system functioned
in Egypt during the period.
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Gallorini C. 2009. Incised marks on pottery and other objects from Kahun.
In b. Haring and O. E. Kaper (eds), Pictograms or Pseudo Script?
Non-textual Identity Marks in Practical Use in Ancient Egypt and
Elsewhere. Proceedings of a Conference in Leiden, 19-20 December
2006, 107-142. Leiden.
Hendrickx S., Faltings D., Beeck L. op de, Raue D. and Michiels Ch.
2002. Milk, beer and bread technology during the Early Dynastic
period. MDAIK 58, 277-304.
Hendrickx S., Friedman R. F., Ciałowicz K. M. and Chłodnicki M. (eds) 2004. Egypt at its Origins. Studies in Memory of
Barbara Adams. Proceedings of the International Conference ‘Origin of
the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt’, Kraków, 28th August1st September 2002. (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 138). Leuven.
Hope C. 1999. Some remarks on potmarks of the Late Eighteenth Dynasty.
In A. Leahy and W. J. Tait (eds), Studies on Ancient Egypt in Honour
of H. S. Smith, 121-146. London.
Jucha M. A. 2005. Tell el-Farkha 2. The Pottery of the Predynastic
Settlement (Phases 2-5). Krakow, Poznań.
Jucha M. A. 2008. The corpus of ‘potmarks’ from the graves at Tell
el-Farkha. In b. Midant-Reynes et al., 133-149.
Köhler e. ch. 1998. Tell el-Faraʻ̂n – Buto 3. Die Keramik von
der späten Vorgeschichte bis zum frühen Alten Reich (Schicht III bis VI).
(AV 94). Mainz.
Kroeper K. 2000. Corpus of potmarks and inscriptions from the Pre/Early
Dynastic cemetery at Minshat Abu Omar (northeastern Delta, Egypt).
In L. Krzyżaniak, K. Kroeper and M. Kobusiewicz (eds), Recent
Research into the Stone Age of Northeastern Africa, 187-218.
(Studies in African Archaeology 7). Poznań.
Mawdsley L. 2011. The corpus of potmarks from Tarkhan. In R. F. Friedman and P. N. Fiske (eds), 1043-1071.
Mączyńska A. 2004. Pottery tradition at Tell el-Farkha. In S. Hendrickx
et al., 421-442.
Mączyńska A. 2009. Old Kingdom pottery at Tell el-Farkha. Some
remarks on bread moulds. In T. I. Rzeuska and A. Wodzińska (eds),
Studies on Old Kingdom Pottery, 95-111. Warsaw.
Mączyńska
A.
2012.
Pottery
from
the
Central
Kom.
In M. Chłodnicki et al., 115-145.
midant-reynes b. and tristant Y. in collaboration with J. rowland
and S. Hendrickx (eds) 2008. Egypt at its Origins 2. Proceedings
of the International Conference ‘Origin of the State, Predynastic
and Early Dynastic Egypt’, Toulouse (France), 5th-8th September
2005. (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 172). Leuven.
Samuel D. 2000. brewing and baking. In P. T. Nicholson and
I. Shaw (eds), Ancient Egyptian Material and Technology, 537-576.
Cambridge.
Sobas M. 2008. Western Kom. The settlement pottery of Phase 5.
In M. Chłodnicki and K. M. Ciałowicz with contributions
by R. Abłamowicz, J. Dębowska-Ludwin, M. A. Jucha, A. Mączyńska,
G. Pryc, M. Rozwadowski and M. Sobas, Polish excavations at Tell
el-Farkha (Ghazala) in the Nile Delta. Preliminary report 2006-2007.
Archeologia 59, 99-105.
Sobas M. 2010. Selected potmarks from the settlement at Tell el-Farkha.
FolOr 47, 405-413.
Sobas M. 2012. Pottery from the Western Kom. In M. Chłodnicki et al.,
181-197.
Wodzińska A. 2011. Potmarks from Early Dynastic buto and Old
Kingdom Giza: their occurrence and economic signiicance.
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Magdalena Sobas
c/o Institute of Archaeology
Jagiellonian University
magdalena_sobas@poczta.fm
S T U D I E S I N A N C I E N T A RT A N D C I v I L I Z AT I O N 18
Kraków 2014
Teodozja I. Rzeuska
Warsaw
IN THE SHAdOW OF WEPWAWET.
AN EARLy NECROPOLIS
ON GEbEL ASYUT AL-GHARbI?* 1
Abstract: Asyut, known as Siut in ancient times, was the capital
of the 13th Nome of Upper Egypt. It is situated precisely in the middle
of Egypt at a crossroads of routes running from north to south and east
to west. The site is mainly recognised as a place where Wepwawet and
Anubis were worshipped and for being the burial ground of the nomarchs
in the 1st Intermediate period/Period of Regions and the Middle Kingdom.
Although the city’s name appears in texts dating back to the 5th Dynasty
and is predated by depictions of Wepwawet, it is only recently that evidence
of an early necropolis has been found on the gebel in Asyut. It was
the German-Egyptian mission of the Asyut Project (Johannes Gutenberg
The generous inancial backing of the Asyut Project by DFG (Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft) has enabled me to participate in several seasons of ieldwork with
the German-Egyptian team of the Asyut Project.
The author would like to thank Prof. Dr. Jochem Kahl (Co-Director of the Asyut Project)
for stimulating discussions on early Asyut and his encouragement to continue working
on the topic. The author would also like to express gratitude to Dr. Guillemette Andreu
(Director of the Department of Egyptian Antiquities of the Louvre Museum), Dr. Geneviève
Pierrat-bonnefois (Chief Curator of the Department of Egyptian Antiquities of the Louvre
Museum), Dr. Eleni vassilika and Dr. Christian Greco (the former and present Directors
of Museo Egizio di Torino respectively) and Mrs Caroline Johansson (Medelhavsmuseet,
Stockholm), who made their museums’ collections available to her and also granted
permission for analysis to be carried out on the objects presented in this paper.
Publication prepared within the framework of the Harmonia funding scheme, contract
number: UMO-2011/01/M/HS3/03423, National Science Centre, Poland. Translation
by: Kasia Olchowska.
*
DOI: 10.12797/SAAC.18.2014.18.06
T. I. Rzeuska
84
University of Mainz/Free University in Berlin/Sohag University) working
on the site for the last ten seasons, which managed to locate an early
cemetery.
Keywords: Asyut; Predynastic and Early Dynastic period; necropolis;
pottery
introduction
Asyut, commonly accepted as the geographical southern boundary of
Middle Egypt, is amongst the most important and recognised archaeological
sites of the area, although it is paradoxically poorly understood. Owing
to its exceptional location at the crossroads of the north-south and eastwest trade routes running through the country, it played a signiicant role
in the history and culture of Egypt (Kahl 1999, 339-348; Kahl 2007,
35-58; Kahl 2012a, 163-164). Situated on the main tourist trail from Cairo
to Luxor, it had often been referred to on the pages of travellers’ memoirs
and immortalised by various artists. These testimonies, which have taken
the form of numerous descriptions, drawings and early photographs, bear
witness to the glorious past of Asyut and its necropolis (Kahl 2013).
Unsurprisingly, Gebel Asyut al-gharbi quickly attracted the attention
of archaeologists and the irst excavations took place here as early as
the 19th century (Fig. 1: 1). This early work led to the discovery of
the numerous rock-cut tombs of high royal oicials dating mainly
to the 1st Intermediate period and the Middle Kingdom (Kahl 2007, 2133), the periods with which Asyut would become associated thereafter
(Zitman 2010). The discoveries most synonymous with Asyut are
the enormous tombs of the nomarchs and the famous wooden models from
the 11th Dynasty tomb of Mesehti. From the 20th century to the present
day, their photographs have been illustrated in textbooks on archaeology
of Egypt and the history of ancient Egyptian art.
However, the remarkable archaeological inds attesting to the greatness
of Asyut during the 1st Intermediate period and the Middle Kingdom are
also its curse, as they give the false impression that the history of Asyut
is exclusively limited to these periods. In fact, its history is far longer and far
more fascinating than is generally believed to be the case.
Ten years ago, a joint German-Egyptian mission known as the Asyut
Project created by the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz and the Free
University of berlin in collaboration with Sohag University, began work
In the shadow of Wepwawet. An early necropolis...
85
Fig. 1. 1 – Gebel Asyut al-gharbi, looking west. © The Asyut Project. Photo by T. I. Rzeuska;
2 – Stone vessel from Tomb 13 found by Chassinat and Palanque (inv. no. 11977). Courtesy
of Musée de Louvre/DAE. Reproduced from Kahl 2007, ig. 97
on new research into Gebel Asyut al-gharbi (Kahl 2012b).12 The primary
objective of this project is to create as full as possible a reconstruction
of Asyut’s history based on as detailed as possible an analysis of all available
sources and objects, including pottery. Questions relating to the beginnings
of the Asyut necropolis (mainly its location, but also the time of its creation),
have been singled out as being of particular importance.
Reports from the work carried out by the project are published in Studien
zur Altägyptischen Kultur (SAK).
1
T. I. Rzeuska
86
early Asyut – the current state of research
When looking at a map of archaeological sites from the Predynastic
and Early Dynastic periods, it quickly becomes apparent that the area
of Middle Egypt stretching between the Fayum Oasis and Asyut appears
as a blank space. This makes it seem as though the region was entirely
void of any human habitation and therefore shunned by early dwellers,
an interpretation that appears highly implausible. The lack of understanding
of the early history of Asyut can be explained (and even excused) to a certain
extent by the fact that the ruins of the ancient city are hidden deep beneath
modern Asyut, making it practically impossible to excavate, especially
as far down as the lower levels, where the remains of early Asyut should
theoretically lie. Although the necropolis has been extensively explored
since the end of the 19th century, earlier research never focused on inding
where its earliest remains were located. To further complicate matters,
written sources on the issue are scarce. The earliest known reference
to the 13th Nome, of which Asyut was the capital, comes from the times
of the 4th Dynasty, whilst the name of Asyut only dates back to the following
5th Dynasty (Kahl 2012b, 9). The city’s name is then mentioned four times
in the Pyramid Texts (PT § 630a-c, 1634a-c). Not only do these written
sources provide evidence of the existence of the city, but they also imply
that it must have been founded much earlier than was generally thought.
Museum collections found in the Louvre of Paris, the Mediterranean
Museum (Medelhavsmuseet) of Stockholm and the Egyptian Museum
(Museo Egizio) of Turin all provide indications of the existence of an early
necropolis somewhere in the vicinity of Asyut, possibly on Gebel Asyut
al-gharbi.
The Louvre collection includes an Early Dynastic squat granite vessel
with lug handles (inv. no. E 11977), which was found alongside another
vessel made of diorite, by E. Chassinat and C. Palanque in Tomb 13 (Fig. 1: 2)
(Chassinat and Palanque 1911, 162; Lilyquist 1995, 10; Kahl 2007, 114; Kahl
2012b, 10). At the time, they were described as objects ‘qui appartiennent
vraisemblablement à une époque plus ancienne que le tombeau, il en juger
par leur forme et par leur matière’ (Chassinat and Palanque 1911, 162). Based
on both its shape, which is an example of type 108 of b. Aston’s typology
of stone vessels (wide-rimmed, squat with a small aperture and thick-walled),
and the fabric (granite was rarely used as a material for vessels), the Louvre
example can be dated to between the 1st and 5th Dynasties (Aston 1994,
16, 131). Unfortunately, it is not clear what happened to the other vessel
In the shadow of Wepwawet. An early necropolis...
87
made of diorite, but its photograph survived in a publication (Chassinat
and Palanque 1911, pl. XXXI: 2) has allowed the object to be classiied as
type 106 in b. Aston’s typology. This type dates to the very same period
as the granite container.
The other two museums have ceramic vessels in their collections.
The two objects from Stockholm were retrieved from the antiquarian market,
but despite having been purchased in Asyut, their association with the gebel
is impossible to prove. The irst one, donated to the museum by N. Retting
in 1931, is a small jar (inv. no. MM 10506) with a distinctive painted decoration
in the form of vertical and horizontal wavy lines and dates to Naqada II
(Fig. 2: 1) (George 1975, 64).23It corresponds to D-Ware (5H) in Petrie’s
(1921, pl. XXXI) classiication of prehistoric pottery. The second vessel
(inv. no. MM 10980), also from Naqada II, is a medium-sized ellipsoid jar
with two handles (Fig. 2: 2).34It comes from the collection of the famous
british major and art collector, R. G. Gayer-Anderson, and was purchased
for the museum in 1934. This object can be classiied as P-Ware (80S)
in Petrie’s (1921, pl. XIII) typology, although its red-slipped exterior is not
polished (Fig. 2: 3).45
The pottery assemblage from Turin, unearthed by Ernesto Schiaparelli
during his excavations on the Asyut gebel between 1911 and 1913,
is of more use. Unfortunately, Schiaparelli did not leave any records
that could help determine the provenance of the ceramics. Apart from
an enigmatic reference to ‘archaic vessels’ on the inventory list, there
is no further information about the group (Kahl 2007, 28; Zitman 2010,
90, no. 589; Kahl 2012b, 10). The assemblage, which consists of a total
of ten objects, contains Predynastic and Early Dynastic vessels that are
mainly Half-polished Ware (P2) (Rzeuska, forthcoming). The distinctive
feature of the ware is red slip and burnish on one of the surfaces, most
commonly the interior, whilst the exterior remains only partially treated.
The vessels are made of two diferent types of fabric, namely Nile silt and
a mixed fabric composed of Nile silt and marl clay. The group consists
of three conical bowls that are lat-based with straight or slightly rounded
This vessel can be viewed on the museum’s website: http://collections.smyk.se/
/carlotta-mhm/web/object/3006059 (status as of Oct., 2014).
3
This vessel can be viewed on the museum’s website: http://collections.smyk.se/
/carlotta-mhm/web/object/3006556 (status as of Oct., 2014).
4
According to Petrie’s typology, vessels classiied as P-Ware should have their surface
polished. Many objects representing this class, however, do not have polished surfaces and
are sometimes not red-slipped either, cf. Friedman 1994, 94.
2
88
T. I. Rzeuska
Fig. 2. 1 – Naqada II jar purchased in Asyut (inv. no. MM 10506). Courtesy
of Medelhavsmuseet; 2 – Squat jar from Naqada II purchased in Asyut (inv. no. MM 10980).
Courtesy of Medelhavsmuseet. Drawing and inking by A. Cedro; 3 – Close-up of squat
jar handle (inv. no. MM 10980). Courtesy of Medelhavsmuseet. Photo by T. I. Rzeuska
walls (inv. nos T 15445, 15442, 14965) (Fig. 3: 1), three lat-based
hemispherical bowls (inv. nos T 14963, 14964, 15573) (Fig. 3: 2) and one
deep carinated bowl on a lat base (inv. no. T 9451), the only object that
has had all of its surfaces treated (Fig. 4: 1). There are also two shallow
plates (inv. nos T 15438, 15436) (Fig. 4: 2) and a hemispherical bowl
In the shadow of Wepwawet. An early necropolis...
89
(inv. no. T 15574) with a round base, which is an example of Red-Slipped
Ware (Fig. 4: 3). Similar examples from buto (Köhler 1998, pls 23, 26),
Elephantine (Kopp 2006, pls 19, 23), Tarkhan (Steinmann 1998, 16-17),
Qau (brunton 1927, pl. XIII) and Abu Zaidan (Needler 1984, 222-223) allow
these objects to be dated to late Predynastic/Early Dynastic times.
Apart from the ceramics mentioned above, the Egyptian Museum
in Turin also has three slightly later examples in its collection. These are
two handmade beer jars (inv. nos T 14961, 14967) (Fig. 5: 1) and a mediumsized marl clay jar (probably Marl C) (inv. no. T 15072) (Fig. 5: 2).
Analogous beer jars from Naga ed-Deir (Reisner 1908, ig. 170; Mace 1909,
Pls 49-54), Elephantine (Raue 1999, 177) and jars from Saqqara (Firth and
Quibell 1935, pl. 102) suggest a 2nd/early 3rd Dynasty dating of the objects.
As was the case with the previously mentioned examples, the exact
provenance of the vessels is unknown.
Fig. 3. 1 – One of three conical bowls illustrating P2 Ware found by E. Schiaparelli
on Gebel Asyut al-ghrabi (inv. no. 15445). Courtesy of Museo Egizio di Torino. Drawing
and inking by A. Cedro, photo by T. I. Rzeuska; 2 – One of three hemispherical latbased bowls representing P2 Ware found by E. Schiaparelli on Gebel Asyut al-ghrabi
(inv. no. 15573). Courtesy of Museo Egizio di Torino. Drawing and inking by A. Cedro,
photo by T. I. Rzeuska
90
T. I. Rzeuska
Fig. 4. 1 – Deep carinated bowl with both surfaces burnished (inv. no. T 9451) found
by E. Schiaparelli on Gebel Asyut al-ghrabi. Courtesy of Museo Egizio di Torino. Drawing
and inking by A. Cedro, photo by T. I. Rzeuska; 2 – One of two shallow bowls found
by E. Schiaparelli on Gebel Asyut al-ghrabi (inv. no. T 15438). Courtesy of Museo Egizio
di Torino. Drawing and inking by A. Cedro, photo by T. I. Rzeuska; 3 – Hemispherical
bowl representing Red-Slipped Ware found by E. Schiaparelli on Gebel Asyut al-ghrabi
(inv. no. T 15574). Courtesy of Museo Egizio di Torino. Drawing and inking by A. Cedro,
photo by T. I. Rzeuska
Although the worth of these collections and their importance
in the reconstruction of the early history of the necropolis on Gebel Asyut
al-gharbi is unquestionable, their uncertain origin does limit their
signiicance. However, they do provide evidence of human activity
on the gebel as early as Naqada II, even if they do not provide clues as
to the location of the necropolis from the period.
In the shadow of Wepwawet. An early necropolis...
91
Fig. 5. 1 – One of two Early
Dynastic beer jars found by
E. Schiaparelli on Gebel Asyut
al-ghrabi (inv. no. T 14961).
Courtesy of Museo Egizio di
Torino. Drawing and inking by
A. Cedro, photo by T. I. Rzeuska;
2 – Early Dynastic marl clay
jar found by E. Schiaparelli on
Gebel Asyut al-ghrabi (inv. no.
T 15072). Courtesy of Museo
Egizio di Torino. Drawing and
inking by A. Cedro, photo by
T. I. Rzeuska
current work on the gebel
The impossibility of locating the early necropolis based on pottery
evidence from the museum collections has made its discovery one of the key
priorities of the team currently working on the gebel within the framework
of the Asyut Project. Two methods of action have been employed to this
efect:
1. a purposive survey of the gebel focusing on its previously unexplored
parts,
2. purposive sampling of the ceramics retrieved during recent
excavations.
between the 2010 and 2012 seasons, regular purposive surveys were
carried out in the upper regions of the gebel from level 6 to level 11 (Klemm
and Klemm 2006; Kahl 2007, 59-60). The most signiicant and abundant
92
T. I. Rzeuska
material from early periods was found on the top of the hill (Rzeuska 2012)
(Fig. 6: 1). It was particularly concentrated on its eastern edge in the vicinity
of the openings of the ‘northern’ and ‘southern’ shafts cut into the bedrock,
which may have been described by early travellers as ‘des restes de cisternes’
(Kahl 2013, 125). They are most probably the funerary shafts of early tombs
(Fig. 6: 2) and it is also highly likely that these shafts had superstructures,
although no evidence has survived to the present day. The top of the gebel
seems as though it would have been both a good and safe location for a tomb
and a similarly positioned mastaba can be found in Elkab (Huyge 2003;
Limme 2008, 23-24). Nevertheless, this interpretation cannot be proven
without a full-scale excavation being carried out.
The largest concentration of pottery was found by the northern shaft
indspot within grid square J12 (Fig. 7: 1-2). It was dominated by fragments
of handmade beer jars executed in Nile silt C tempered with inclusions
of organic material, sand and some ine crushed limestone (Fig. 8: 1).
All of the vessels are thin-walled, especially in comparison to late Old
Kingdom examples. The majority were ired in a reduced atmosphere.
The most frequently found parts are rims and shoulders (inv. nos AS 413,
417), whilst the pointed bases with a distinctive dip are less common
(inv. no. AS 411) (Fig. 8: 2, 9: 1). based on analogous material from
Hierakonpolis (Raue 2007, 331), Abydos (Engel 1997, 28) and Elephantine
(Raue 1999, 176-177), they can be dated to the late 2nd Dynasty.
Slightly further to the north of the northern shaft (indspot 1 within
grid square G14) a fragment of a small bowl was found (inv. no. AS 200)
(Fig. 6: 1, 9: 2). It represents an early form of the carinated bowl, which
later evolved into the classic carinated Meidum bowl. The vessel is moulded
from medium ine Marl clay (similar to A1 in the vienna System) and both
its surfaces are red-slipped. The example has two other atypical elements,
namely two grooves incised prior to iring that encircle the body at its widest
point and a small protrusion on the shoulders which resembles a place where
a spout would have been attached. Analogous examples from Qau (brunton
1927, pl. 13), Adaima and Elkab (Op de beck 2004, 247-248) also suggest
a 2nd Dynasty dating of this object.
As regards the purposive sampling, ceramic material unearthed during
recent excavations contains occasional examples of early pottery. These
are primarily beer jar fragments, which are identical to those from the top
of the gebel. Other vessel forms, such as a large, hand-made jar of unidentiied
shape (inv. nos AS 320, 423, 424), are rare (Fig. 10: 1).
In the shadow of Wepwawet. An early necropolis...
93
Fig. 6. 1 – Survey of pottery ind-spots. © the Asyut Project/C. Goerlich; 2 – view
of the gebel; northern and southern openings visible at the northern and southern end of
the gebel’s eastern edge, most probably associated with funerary shafts. © Google Earth
94
T. I. Rzeuska
Fig. 7. 1 – Northeastern side of the gebel with the northern shaft; buildings of the modern
Asyut in the background, looking northeast. © The Asyut Project. Photo by T. I. Rzeuska;
2 – Northern shaft on the eastern side of the gebel. © The Asyut Project. Photo
by T. I. Rzeuska
In the shadow of Wepwawet. An early necropolis...
95
Fig. 8. 1 – Obscure jar fragments by the northern shaft. © The Asyut Project. Photo
by T. I. Rzeuska; 2 – Examples of beer jar rims collected from vicinity of the northern shaft.
© The Asyut Project. Photo by T. I. Rzeuska
96
T. I. Rzeuska
Fig. 9. 1 – Examples of Early Dynastic beer jars found by the mouth of the northern
shaft on the gebel top. © The Asyut Project. Drawing and inking by A. Cedro, photo
by T. I. Rzeuska; 2 – Early Meidum bowl found in the northern part of the gebel top.
© The Asyut Project. Drawing and inking by A. Cedro. Photo by T. I. Rzeuska
Worthy of particular note is a body sherd of a cylindrical vessel, which
is an example of black-topped ware (Fig. 10: 2). Regardless of its poor
condition (which prevents a closer identiication of the form), the very
presence of pottery dating to Naqada I-IIa-b (Kaiser 1957, pls 21-22)
provides strong evidence of the existence of an early necropolis somewhere
on the gebel.
The example samples just presented come from redeposited contexts
that bear no association to the place of their discovery; the fragments of jars
In the shadow of Wepwawet. An early necropolis...
97
Fig. 10. 1 – Fragments of large handmade jars. © The Asyut Project. Drawing and inking
by A. Cedro, photo by T. I. Rzeuska; 2 – Mid-section of cylindrical black-Topped vessel.
© The Asyut Project. Drawing and inking by A. Cedro, photo by T. I. Rzeuska
were found in the courtyard of Tomb v and the black-topped sherd
was discovered in the courtyard of Tomb III. Nevertheless, the location
of the fragments alone suggests that they originate from the upper regions
of the gebel or its very top.
summary
To summarise, the Predynastic and Early Dynastic pottery found on
Gebel Asyut al-gharbi (especially the ceramics recovered during recent
98
T. I. Rzeuska
excavations) provides conclusive proof of the existence of an early
necropolis on the hill from as early as Naqada II, if not Naqada I.
The discovery of a cemetery from this period would in turn irrefutably
conirm human habitation in the Asyut area at this time. With regards
to its potential location, the pottery collected during the survey of the top
of the gebel, as well as the results of the sampling, suggests that the search
for the earliest necropolis should be conducted on the very top of the gebel
and in its upper regions. It is down to those conducting future excavations
to determine its precise location.
references
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(Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Altägyptens 5). Heidelberg.
Brunton G. 1927. Qau and Badari 1. (BSAE/ERA 29). London.
Chassinat É. and Palanque Ch. 1911. Une campagne de fouilles dans
la nécropole d’Assiout. (MIFAO 24). Cairo.
engel e.-m. 1997. Abydos, Umm el-Qa’ab, Grab des Chasechemui.
Bulletin de liason du Group international d’étude de la céramique
égyptienne 20, 25-28.
Firth c. m. and quibell J. e. 1935. The Step Pyramid. Cairo.
Friedman R. F. 1994. Predynastic Settlement Ceramics of Upper
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George b. 1975. Frühe Keramik aus ̈gypten: die dekorierte Negade IIKeramik im Medelhavsmuseet. (MedMusB 10). Stockholm.
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Kahl J. 2012b. Asyut and the Asyut Project. In J. Kahl, M. El-Khadragy,
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Jahrhunderts: Konstruktion, Destruktion und Rekonstruktion.
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Naqada-Kultur bis zum frühen Alten Reich (Schichten III bis VI).
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239-280.
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In W. Kaiser, F. Arnold, M. bommas, T. Hikade, H. Jaritz, P. Kopp,
W. Niederberger, J.-P. Paetznick, C. von Pilgrim, b. von Pilgrim,
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and J. Richards (eds), The Archaeology and Art of Ancient Egypt:
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(University of California Publications in Egyptian Archaeology 2).
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Teodozja I. Rzeuska
Institute of Mediterranean and Oriental Cultures
Polish Academy of Sciences
trzeuska@iksio.pan.pl
S T U D I E S I N A N C I E N T A RT A N D C I v I L I Z AT I O N 18
Kraków 2014
Magdalena Kazimierczak
Krakow
POTTERY FROM TELL EL-MURRA
GRAvES. SEASONS 2011-2012
Abstract: Excavations conducted at the Tell el-Murra cemetery in
seasons 2011 and 2012 revealed ive graves with pottery assemblages. Grave
no. 3 contained pottery vessels which could be dated to the end of the Naqada
IIIB period. The pottery vessels found here included two cylindrical jars
(one with a cord impression and the second with an incised continuous line
beneath the rim), as well as a quite elongated, ovoid jar with impressed halfbows on its shoulders. Two chronologically later graves (nos 1 and 2) should
probably be dated to the Naqada IIIC2 period. The pottery assemblage
of these graves included large, tall-shouldered jars with impressed halfbows and pot marks (grave no. 1), jars with rope band decorations, wine
jars (grave no. 2), ovoid jars, barrel-shaped jars, small broad-shouldered
jars, beer jars and undecorated cylindrical jars. Other pottery types
included bowls with convex sides, a tray with an oval oriice, a red-polished
plate and pot stands. Grave no. 7 seems to date to a diferent time period,
as it contained rough ware beer jars and bowls with convex sides and simple
rims. It therefore probably dates to the Naqada IIIC2/IIID period. The most
recent of the graves containing pottery vessels (grave no. 5) was discovered
in the 2012 season. It contained two pottery vessels: one was a miniature and
the other was a bowl with convex sides, a simple rim, a slightly narrowing
area of concave contour below the rim and a lat base. Based on pottery
analysis, it should be dated to the second half of the 2nd Dynasty.
Keywords: Early Dynastic Egypt; the Nile Delta; burials; cemetery;
ceramic vessels
DOI: 10.12797/SAAC.18.2014.18.07
102
M. Kazimierczak
The site of Tell el-Murra is situated in the northeastern part
of the Nile Delta, several kilometres to the east of Tell el-Farkha, a wellknown archaeological site of the 4th/3rd millennia bC. Tell el-Murra
has been explored since 2008, when the irst survey was conducted here
by the Polish Archaeological Expedition from the Institute of Archaeology
of the Jagiellonian University in Krakow (Jucha 2009a). In 2010, the irst
test trenches were explored, and excavations have been carried out annually
ever since. These have revealed settlement layers containing Predynastic
(Lower Egyptian Culture), Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom (up until
the 6th Dynasty) pottery (Jucha 2010).
Over three consecutive excavation seasons between 2010 and 2012,
work was carried out on trench S3, located in the southwestern part
of the tell, where a cemetery was found. Fieldwork in 2011-2012 revealed
several graves in this area. Out of the seven explored up to 2012, ive
contained pottery vessels.
The oldest of the graves is grave no. 3, which was explored in the 2012
season. Situated in the western part of trench S3, it is a single-chamber brick
structure containing a ceramic coin, almost rectangular in shape, with
rounded quoins. The oferings included ive ceramic vessels. The complete
examples were two cylindrical jars and two shouldered forms with a lat
base. The inal vessel, a shouldered jar, was only partially preserved.
The irst of the cylindrical vessels was found inside the coin, to the west
of the skull. It was made of good quality Nile clay tempered with ine sand.
The jar’s surface was slipped and burnished, but the coat was only partially
preserved. The black colour in the lower part of the vessel was probably
a result of the pot being burnt. A decoration resembling a cord impression
was observable just beneath the rim (Fig. 1: 1).
The second cylindrical jar was found in the northeastern part of the burial
chamber, outside the coin. It was decorated with an incised continuous line
beneath the rim. The vessel was made of marl clay (Fig. 1: 2).
The cylindrical jars with a cord impression and an incised continuous
line situated beneath the rim are forms which are comparable to Petrie’s
types 48s, 48t and 49l (1953, pl. IX). These forms are especially characteristic of the Naqada IIIb period (Hendrickx 1996, 62, tab. 7; Hendrickx 2006,
86; Hendrickx 2011, 67, tabs 1, 2, ig. 3) and similar examples have been
discovered in other contexts dated to this time from other sites, among them
those located in the eastern part of the Nile Delta. At Tell el-Farkha, jars
with these kind of decorative patterns (especially those with a cord pattern)
occur in the earliest group of graves dating to the Naqada IIIb period, most
Pottery from Tell el-Murra graves...
103
probably to its beginning,
prior to Iry-Hor (Jucha 2012,
77). In the settlement context
of this site, jars with an incised straight line occur mainly in the strata belonging to
Phase 5, but also sporadically
in the upper strata of Phase 4.
These phases date to the Naqada IIIb-C1 (Jucha 2005, 77)
and Naqada IIIA1-IIIb period
(Jucha 2005, 74) respectively
(Jucha 2005, 60). At Minshat
Abu Omar, decorated cylindrical jars are the most characteristic element of group 3 graves
dating to the Naqada IIIb/IIIC
period. However, examples
decorated with either an engraved line ornament imitating
a cord or a simple scratched
line around the neck are even
more typical of graves beFig. 1. Tell el-Murra. The pottery from
longing to an earlier phase
grave no. 3. Drawings by A. Szczerbińska
and the author
of group 3, which is deined
as 3b (Kroeper 1986/1987,
75-76, 87; Kroeper 1988, 14; igs 85-88; Kroeper and Wildung 2000,
cat. nos 881/1, 866/20, 109/9, 415/6). Similar vessels have also been found
at Helwan cemetery in a group of graves dating to the Naqada IIIb/C period
(Köhler 2004, 308-309, ig. 7).
A further two vessels were discovered to the north of the ceramic
coin. These were located in the northwestern and northeastern corners
of the chamber. The jar from the northwestern corner was ovoid in shape,
but also quite elongated with an out-turned rim, lattened rim-top and
lattened base (Fig. 1: 3). The vessel was decorated with two discontinuous
bands of three impressed half-bows situated on the shoulders. This pattern
was probably produced by impressing ingers into wet clay. The jar was
made of medium category Nile clay tempered with ine to medium-grained
sand, as well as straw, and its surface was inely smoothed.
104
M. Kazimierczak
This type of ovoid, elongated jar (but not its slight half-bow decoration)
is analogous to Petrie’s 74e (1953, pl. XvIII) and van den brink’s type III
(1996, 144-147, igs 2: 9-13, 3: 16-17). Such jars date to SD 78 (Petrie 1953,
pl. XvIII) or at least to within Hendrickx’s Naqada IIIb-C1 (1996, 42). Jars
of both this type and van den brink’s type II began to feature in Kaiser’s
Horizon A and continued into Horizon b (Jucha 2009b, 634-635), although
they were previously more associated with the latter period. Shouldered
jar forms and impressed half-bow decorations are also analogous to vessels
characteristic of graves of group 3 from Minshat Abu Omar, which dates
to the Naqada IIIb/IIIC period. They appear in graves belonging to an early
phase of group 3 (group 3b), but also occur in the next chronological group
(3c) (Kroeper 1986/1987, 76-77, 88-89; Kroeper 1988, 14-16, igs 79-81,
89-97, 140-143). Similar forms were present at the Tell el-Farkha cemetery
in graves dating to Naqada IIIb (Jucha 2012, 78, ig. 1: 4). In Helwan, they
were discovered in graves belonging to a group dated to the Naqada IIIb/C
period (Köhler 2004, 307-308, ig. 7).
The shouldered jar found in the northeastern corner of the chamber has
a lattened base and does not possess any decoration (Fig. 1: 4). It was made
of medium category Nile clay, its outer surface was smoothed and covered
with red slip and burnishing marks are still visible.
A fragment of the ifth vessel was found next to the ceramic coin.
The jar was preserved only partially, mainly in its upper section, which
consisted of a thickened, out-turned rim with a lattened rim-top and part
of its shoulders. It was made of medium category Nile clay tempered with
ine to medium sand and straw. The shape of the vessel was probably similar
to the jar decorated with half-bows mentioned above (Fig. 1: 3).
The analogy discussed between the pottery from Tell el-Murra grave
no. 3 and the forms of vessel from graves belonging to group 3 at Minshat
Abu Omar dating to the Naqada IIIb/C (especially to phase 3b), as well as
its similarity to graves from Tell el-Farkha dating to Naqada IIIb, allow
us to place grave no. 3 in the same period. It can therefore be considered
to be the oldest found thus far at the Tell el-Murra cemetery.
The other graves are undoubtedly later in chronology. The pottery
assemblage of two of them (graves 1 and 2) is, however, quite similar.
Grave no. 1, explored in 2011, is a double-chamber structure located
to the east of grave no. 3. The deceased and most of the goods contained
in the grave were placed in the southern chamber with only a few vessels
deposited in the northern one. The pottery assemblage of the grave consists
Pottery from Tell el-Murra graves...
105
of 28 diferent kinds of vessels, 17 of which were complete or in a state from
which they could be reconstructed.
In the northern chamber, four large, tall-shouldered jars with slightly
convex bases were found, all of them almost completely preserved
(Figs 2, 3). The jars were decorated with lightly impressed half-bows
on the shoulders and carried pot-marks in the upper part of their bodies.
These vessels were made of medium category Nile clay tempered with ine
to medium sand and straw. Their surface was smoothed and, in some cases,
self-slip is also visible on their surface.
Fig. 2. Tell el-Murra. The pottery jars from grave no. 1. Drawings by E. Wątroba
106
M. Kazimierczak
These jars correspond to Petrie’s
type 75v (1953, pl. XXI). At Minshat
Abu Omar cemetery, similar forms
of large jars decorated with half-bows
on the shoulders appear in graves
of group 4 dating to Naqada IIIC/IIID
(Kroeper 1988, 16, ig. 160).
Other forms from the same
location include two ovoid jars
with slightly thickened rims and
rounded or lattened bases (Fig. 4:
1) and one almost barrel-shaped jar
(Fig. 4: 2) with a thickened rim and
a lat base (types 85c,d,e: Petrie 1953,
pl. XXv). The ovoid jars were made
of medium quality Nile clay tempered
with ine to medium straw and sand.
In terms of surface treatment, they
can be classiied as medium rough
ware. Ovoid jars also occur in a group
of graves at Tell el-Farkha dating
to Naqada IIIb/C1-C2 (Jucha 2012,
81), as well as in graves of group
4 at Minshat Abu Omar (Kroeper
1986/1987, 77, 81, 91, ig. 76; Kroeper
1988, 16, igs 165-167). The barrelFig. 3. Tell el-Murra. The pottery
shaped jar is of better quality and
jar from grave no. 1.
is well constructed from ine Nile clay
Drawings by E. Wątroba
with a smoothed surface of a light red
colour. Similar forms of jar also occur
in graves of group 4 at Minshat Abu Omar, where almost barrel-shaped
jars are among the newest forms to be discovered there (Kroeper 1988, 16,
igs 168-171). Finally, the Early Dynastic cemetery at Helwan also contained
similar material. Almost barrel-shaped jars were found here alongside
other vessels in graves belonging to groups dating to Naqada IIIC-D
and Naqada IIID1 (Köhler 2004, 300, 302-303, igs 3-4; Köhler et al.
2011, 105).
Among the pottery assemblage of the southern chamber were six small,
broad-shouldered jars with a concave lower part of the body narrowing
Pottery from Tell el-Murra graves...
107
Fig. 4. Tell el-Murra. The pottery from grave no. 1. Drawings by E. Wątroba
towards a lat base (Fig. 4: 3). These vessels were classiied as medium
rough ware and in all cases the upper part of the jar (the rim and neck)
was inished by slow turning, in contrast to the middle and lower parts,
which were scraped. All these jars were made of medium category Nile clay
tempered with ine to medium-grained sand and straw. In Petrie’s Corpus
of Proto-Dynastic Pottery (1953, pl. XI-XII), a similar form is described
as type 57v. Similar small jars also occur in the Early Dynastic cemetery
108
M. Kazimierczak
at Helwan (as well as at other sites), where they are dated from middle
to late 1st Dynasty – Naqada IIIC2/IIID (Köhler and Smythe 2004, 131,
pl. 4; Smythe 2004, 320, igs 1-2).
Two undecorated cylindrical jars were found in the southeastern corner
of the southern chamber. The irst of them (Fig. 4: 5), categorised as ine ware,
was made of ine quality clay tempered with a small amount of ine-grained
sand. Its light-red surface was well smoothed. This kind of undecorated
jar is well-known from Naqada IIIC1/IIIC2 (end of the Protodynastic
to the beginning of the Early Dynastic period) (Hendrickx 1996, 62, tab. 7;
Jucha 2005, 45; Hendrickx 2006, 86-87; Hendrickx 2011, 67, tabs 1, 2, ig.
3). These are some of the latest examples from Petrie’s W-class (1953, pl. IX)
and were described as type 50. At Tell el-Farkha, the presence of undecorated
cylindrical jars is one of the characteristic features of the pottery assemblage
from graves dated to Naqada IIIb/C1-C2 (Jucha 2008a, 72, ig. 9: 1-2; Jucha
2012, 80). Moreover, such forms also occur in Minshat Abu Omar graves
belonging to the later phase of group 3, which are dated to Naqada IIIb/IIIC
(described in earlier publications as 3c) (Kroeper 1986/1987, 76, 80, 87,
igs 52-53; Kroeper 1988, 16, ig. 139).
The second vessel, a small cylindrical jar (Fig. 4: 4), was made
of coarser medium category Nile clay and tempered with straw and sand.
It has a slightly smoothed surface of a red colour, the upper part of the body
was inished by slow turning and the middle and lower parts were trimmed
diagonally. This kind of jar seems to be slightly later chronologically than
the undecorated ine ware cylindrical jar, as it appeared around the middle
of the 1st Dynasty (end of Naqada IIIC1/beginning of Naqada IIIC2)
(Smythe 2004, 324-325, ig. 15a; Jucha 2008a, 73, ig. 9: 7).
In the southeastern corner of the southern chamber, a pot-stand was
situated close to the abovementioned cylindrical jars (Fig. 4: 6). This vessel
has straight, convergent walls. The base of the pot-stand was cut and its edge
was smoothed and slightly thickened. below the slightly thickened rim,
the pot-stand has two small holes on two sides of the vessel. It was made
of medium category Nile clay and its surface was slipped with red coat
and polished.
Amongst the completely preserved vessels, a small bowl with slightly
convex, divergent sides and a lat base should also be mentioned (Fig. 4: 7).
This vessel was made of medium category Nile clay and had a smoothed
surface.
Apart from the complete or reconstructable vessels, pieces of a few
other partially preserved examples were found. The whole group consists
Pottery from Tell el-Murra graves...
109
Fig. 5. Tell el-Murra. The pottery from grave no. 2.
Drawings by A. Drabik and E. Wątroba
of an almost barrel-shaped jar preserved without its base, three bases
resembling feet probably belonging to small jars, rounded bases and upper
parts probably belonging to four other jars, fragments of a tray and two jars
with narrow shoulders, preserved without their bases.
Some pottery vessels from grave no. 1 are analogous to those discovered
in graves at the Minshat Abu Omar cemetery which belong to the later part
of group 3. The Tell el-Farkha cemetery also ofers comparable material,
as similarities can be seen with vessels from graves dated to the Naqada
IIIb/C1-C2 period. These include cylindrical jars without decoration,
as well as other types.
110
M. Kazimierczak
Most of the vessels from Tell el-Murra are, however, similar to forms
which occur in group 3 graves from Minshat Abu Omar. These include large,
elongated jars with half-bows on the shoulders, ovoid jars and barrel-shaped
jars.
The ainity of some of these vessel types to pottery from Helwan graves
can also be observed, especially (in terms of occurrence) with vessels from
a group of graves dated to Naqada IIIC-D and Naqada IIID1. These were
small, broad-shouldered jars and squat jars.
The pottery assemblage from Tell el-Murra grave no. 1 also shows
similarities to the pottery corpus from Kafr Hassan Dawood, a site located
in Wadi Tumilat (east Delta) (Hassan et al. 2008, 41-59). Similarities can
be seen in terms of the occurrence of broad-shouldered ovoid jars with
a lat base, small broad-shouldered jars, cylindrical jars, small cylindrical
jars, bowls with convex sides and a lat base and tall pot-stands (Hassan
et al. 2008, 45-48, igs 3-5).
On the basis of the analogy presented above, grave no. 1 from Tell
el-Murra should probably be dated to the Naqada IIIC2 period.
Grave no. 2, located to the south of grave no. 1, was explored
in the 2011 season. besides the pottery and stone assemblages, it also
contained a rectangular, ceramic coin with a convex cover, composed of
two parts. Out of the 18 pottery vessels discovered in this tomb, 17 were
complete or in a state allowing reconstruction. Most of the pottery was
situated in the northern part of the chamber, not within the ceramic coin.
The pottery assemblage includes four slender wine jars. The irst, which
is completely preserved (Fig. 5: 1), has a surface covered with red slip and
is polished. The jar was decorated with a cord pattern formed by a clay
band applied around the shoulders. The second, preserved in a state allowing
reconstruction, was also decorated with a rope band at the shoulders.
Its light-brown-beige surface was very inely smoothed. The third, a partially
preserved jar (mainly in the lower part of the body, below the shoulders),
carried a rope band situated above the base. Fragments of a rim and
shoulders decorated with rope bands were found in a tomb located close
to this jar and were probably associated with it, which could suggest that
the jar probably had two such bands on the shoulders and below the rim.
The fourth example, preserved in a state allowing its reconstruction,
has a decorative rope band on the shoulder. It also contains a pot mark incised
on the shoulder below the rope band. The jar’s surface was well smoothed.
All four vessels have thickened rims and lattened or slightly convex bases
Pottery from Tell el-Murra graves...
111
and are made of the same medium category Nile clay, tempered with ine
to medium-grained sand and straw.
Once again, Minshat Abu Omar cemetery ofers comparable material.
Here, ‘wine jars’ decorated with a rope band feature among the newest forms
appearing in graves of group 4, which dates to Naqada IIIC/IIID (Kroeper
1986/1987, 77, 81, 91, ig. 74; Kroeper 1988, 16, igs 157-158). A similar
form of jars with a rope band pattern also occurs at the Early Dynastic
cemetery at Helwan in a group of graves dating to the Naqada IIICD and
Naqada IIID1 periods (Köhler 2004, 300, 302-303, igs 3-4). The three
jars with a decorative band on the shoulder mentioned above correspond
to Petrie’s type 76n (1953, pl. XXIII).
In the northern part of the chamber (outside the coin), other types of jar
were also found. These were all made of medium category Nile clay tempered
with ine to medium-grained sand and straw. They include four ovoid jars
with a lattened or rounded base. They tend to have a rough, sometimes
slightly smoothed surface. These jars are similar to the forms discovered
in grave no. 1. They also show an ainity to egg-shaped middle-sized storage
jars found in Minshat Abu Omar group 4 graves dating to Naqada IIIC/IIID
(Kroeper 1986/1987, 77, 81, 91, ig. 76; Kroeper 1988, 16, igs 165-167).
Two broad-shouldered jars with a very short neck were also found.
One of them, with a lattened base and a slightly thickened rim, has a hole
in the bottom part of the body, which was probably made before iring
(Fig. 5: 2). Its surface was very well smoothed and the remnants of red slip
are still visible. The second jar also has a slightly thickened rim, but its base
is rounded. The surface is inely smoothed, but its reddy-greyish-yellow
colour is probably a result of mineralisation or burning.
Other vessels to be discovered included a small, broad-shouldered jar,
as well as a small, drop-shaped jar. The irst has a simple rim, an angular
transition between the neck and shoulders and a concave lower part of
the body narrowing towards its lat base. The jar was made of medium
category Nile clay tempered with ine to medium sand and straw. Many
vertical scratch marks are visible on its surface below the shoulders (Fig. 5:
3) and the vessel could probably be classiied as a ‘beer jar’ (Kroeper 1988,
igs 161-162; Jucha 2012, 84). The small, drop-shaped jar (Jucha 2005, 46,
74, 77) has a slightly thickened, rounded rim and a rounded base (Fig. 5:
4). It was made of medium category Nile clay with a small amount of straw
used as temper. Its surface is rough, with only the upper part under the rim
slightly smoothed.
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M. Kazimierczak
Another group of vessels, found in the northern part of the chamber,
contained diferent kinds of bowl and a tray. The group included a shallow
tray with a simple rim (Fig. 5: 5), an oval oriice and a slightly rounded
base (Petrie 1953, pl. II: 10-11). The vessel was made of medium Nile
clay, tempered with ine sand, quartz and angular particles of limestone.
Its surface was damaged, which makes exact identiication problematic.
The surface was probably covered with red slip and polished, but the slip
is only partially preserved. Examples of such trays have also been found
at Minshat Abu Omar (Kroeper 1992, 23-25). At Tell el-Farkha, they occur
in graves dated to Naqada IIIb/C1-C2 (Jucha 2012, 81).
A bowl made of good quality clay tempered with a small amount
of very ine sand and straw was also found. It has convex sides, a simple rim
and a lat base (Fig. 5: 6). The bowl’s surface was slipped with red coat and
polished.
A further shallow bowl with slightly concave divergent sides and
a simple, rounded rim was discovered in the central part of the chamber next
to the northern edge of the coin. It was made of medium category Nile clay
and its red surface was well smoothed.
A ceramic pot-stand, preserved without its lower part, was found next to
the bowl mentioned above. The vessel has a rim which is slightly thickened
on its outer side and straight convergent walls. It was made of medium
category Nile clay tempered with sand, quartz and small particles of straw.
Its well-smoothed surface was covered with red slip.
The pottery assemblage also includes a red-coated plate which
was deposited between the eastern side of the coin and the eastern wall
of the grave. It was made of medium category Nile clay and only its interior
surface was slipped with red coat and polished. The outer surface, uncoated
and smoothed, was decorated with two incised lines beneath the rim
(Fig. 5: 7).
An additional partially preserved jar was also recorded in the assemblage
of grave no. 2.
Some of the pottery vessels found in grave no. 2 (as was the case with
grave no. 1) show similarities to forms discovered at the Tell el-Farkha
cemetery in graves dating to the Naqada IIIb/C1-C2 period (Jucha 2012,
80-83). This is visible in the occurrence of ovoid jars, squat jars with a lat
base, small drop-shaped jars, a tray with an oval oriice, as well as a bowl
with concave sides. However, the wine jars from Tell el-Murra are of a
later type than those found at Tell el-Farkha. Furthermore, in the case of
the beer jar and the red-coated plate, the assemblage of grave no. 2 shows
Pottery from Tell el-Murra graves...
113
ainity to a group of graves from Tell el-Farkha dated to Naqada IIIC2/IIID
(Jucha 2012, 84-86).
However, most of the pottery forms found in grave no. 2 can also be
compared with the pottery assemblage of group 4 graves from Minshat Abu
Omar, which includes wine jars with a rope band decoration, ovoid vessels,
beer jars with scraped surfaces, barrel-shaped jars, bowls with convex sides
and plates.
The forms of vessel from grave no. 2 are also analogous to pottery
discovered at the Helwan cemetery in groups of graves dated to Naqada
IIIC-D and Naqada IIID1. This speciically relates to the occurrence of wine
jars with a rope band and squat jars.
The pottery assemblage from Tell el-Murra grave no. 2 is also similar
to the pottery corpus from Kafr Hassan Dawood (Hassan et al. 2008, 41-59).
Amongst the pottery vessels discovered during excavations at this cemetery,
various forms have been identiied: elongated wine jars with a rope band
on the shoulder, broad-shouldered ovoid jars with a lat base, beer jars,
trays with an oval oriice, bowls with convex sides and a lat base and tall
pot-stands (Hassan et al. 2008, 45-48, igs 3-5).
The abovementioned similarities allow us to date grave no. 2 from
Tell el-Murra most probably to the Naqada IIIC2 period.
Grave no. 7 seems to date to a diferent period. It was explored
in the 2012 season and was probably created a little after the graves (1 and
2) mentioned above. The bigger, northern chamber of the grave contained
a ceramic, rectangular coin with a convex cover in which the deceased
was placed. Most of the pottery assemblage (at least ive vessels)
of the grave was probably placed in the southern chamber, but the grave
was damaged and some vessels could have been dislocated or crushed.
Two almost complete rough ware beer jars were found in the southern
chamber. They were made of medium category Nile clay and tempered with
ine to medium straw and ine to medium sand, as well as a small amount
of coarser sand grains. The vessels possess a broad-shouldered, conical
shape and have slightly thickened lip-rims and lattened bases (Fig. 6: 1).
The rims and necks of these jars were smoothed (turning marks are visible),
while the surface at the shoulders and below the shoulders was roughly
scraped with vertical or diagonal strokes. A third beer jar is partially
preserved, mainly in its upper (the rim and the shoulder) and lower-bottom
part. It has a lip-rim, an undistinguished neck and a lattened base.
Two bowls were also discovered. One was found next to the western
wall of the grave, while the other was located near the southwestern
114
M. Kazimierczak
Fig. 6. Tell el-Murra. The pottery from graves no. 7 (1-2) and no. 5 (3-4).
Drawings by the author
corner of the ceramic coin. The bowls have convex walls, a simple rim,
and a lattened or slightly rounded base (Fig. 6: 2). They were made
of medium category Nile clay and the outer and inner surfaces of these
vessels were coated with red slip and burnished.
The assemblage of grave no. 7 from Tell el-Murra can be compared
to pottery from a group of graves in Tell el-Farkha dating to Naqada IIIC2/
IIID (Jucha 2012, 84). The most characteristic feature of this group
is the presence of diferent types of beer jar. Two jars from Tell el-Murra
grave no. 7 seem to be examples of earlier types of beer jar typical
of the 1st Dynasty (type 59h: Petrie 1953, pl. XIII). They show the most
ainity to a group of beer jars from Tell el-Farkha with a scraped surface
dating to Naqada IIIb-C2/D (Jucha 2008b, 134; Jucha 2009c, 52-54).
besides the beer jars, there are also red polished bowls with convex sides
in the Tell-el-Farkha group of graves which are similar to the two vessels
discovered in grave no. 7 (Jucha 2012, 84-86). A similarity of form can also
be seen when considering the beer jars and bowls found in Minshat Abu
Omar group 4 graves (Kroeper 1986/1987, 77, 91, ig. 77; Kroeper 1988,
igs 161-164; Kroeper and Wildung 2000, 111-113, cat. nos 404/11-404/15).
The forms of beer jar occurring in Tell el-Murra grave no. 7 can also be
compared to the irst recorded specimens to appear from Naqada IIIA/b
Pottery from Tell el-Murra graves...
115
from the typological sequence of beer jars presented by E. Ch. Köhler and
Jane C. Smythe (2004, 133-134, ig. 2: 1). However, these forms did continue
to be made later on and they may have been manufactured at the same time
as other types of beer jar (Jucha 2009c, 50-54). Moreover, such jars are also
similar to those from settlement contexts dating to Naqada IIIC and IIID
in places such as buto, where jars with a scraped surface are attested
in Layers Iv to vIa, but forms with lat bases occur mostly in Layer Iv
(Köhler 1998, 16-17, 52-58, Taf. 5-7; Köhler et al. 2011, 103). At the Tell
el-Farkha settlement, examples of such jars were found in the strata
of Phases 5, 6 and 7, which date to the Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom
periods (Jucha 2005, 42-43, pl. 26, ig. 14).
The pottery from grave no. 7 also shows an ainity to pottery found
in graves no. 1 and 2 at Tell el-Murra, especially in terms of the occurrence
of beer jars. However, wine jars and other forms are absent from grave
no. 7. The occurrence of the beer jars could indicate a chronological
relationship between the graves, but with the present state of research,
it is very diicult to precisely deine their relationship.
On the basis of the analogy above, grave no. 7 from Tell el-Murra can
most probably be dated to the Naqada IIIC2/IIID period.
The most recent of the graves containing pottery vessels discovered
thus far is grave no. 5. It is a single-chamber structure containing a small,
ceramic, rectangular coin with intentionally made holes in its base. Among
the oferings made here were two ceramic vessels: one miniature vessel
and a bowl. both were located inside the ceramic coin in the southeastern
corner.
The miniature vessel was made of medium category Nile clay, with ine
sand and straw used as a temper. It has a slightly thickened rim, a very short
neck and broad shoulders. An irregular incised line can also be seen above
its lattened base (Fig. 6: 3).
The other ceramic vessel from this grave is a bowl made of medium
category Nile clay tempered with sand and straw. The surface of the bowl
was smoothed, covered with red slip and burnished. The vessel has convex
sides, a simple rim, a slightly narrowing area of concave contour below
the rim and a lat base (Fig. 6: 4). This bowl probably corresponds to forms
which occur in the second half of the 2nd Dynasty (Friedman 2007, 331,
ig. 12: F55, F29) and this ainity allows us to date the burial chamber
to this period.
The pottery assemblage from the Tell el-Murra graves described above
contains forms which show an ainity to diferent types of vessel dating
116
M. Kazimierczak
to the Early Dynastic period. Analogical material is mostly provided
by the cemeteries at Minshat Abu Omar and Tell el-Farkha, but the pottery
is also comparable to forms found at other sites, such as Helwan, buto
and Kafr Hassan Dawood. These similarities allow us to date the Tell
el-Murra cemetery to the Early Dynastic period.
references
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Part 1: complete vessels. In A. J. Spencer (ed.), 140-174.
Friedman R. F. 2007. New observations on the fort at Hierakonpolis.
In Z. A. Hawass and J. E. Richards (eds), The Archaeology and Art
of Ancient Egypt. Essays in Honor of David B. O’Connor, 309-336.
(ASAE 36). Cairo.
Hassan F. A., Tassie G., Senussi A., Wetering J. van, Sharp D. and
Calcoen B. 2008. A preliminary report on the pottery from
the Predynastic and Early Dynastic cemetery at Kafr Hassan Dawood,
Wadi Tumilat, East Delta, Egypt. In b. Midant-Reynes and Y. Tristant
in collaboration with J. Rowland and S. Hendrickx (eds), Egypt
at its Origins 2. Proceedings of the International Conference ‘Origin
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(France), 5th-8th September 2005, 41-61. (Orientalia Lovaniensia
Analecta 172). Leuven.
Hendrickx s. 1996. The relative chronology of the Naqada culture.
Problems and possibilities. In A. J. Spencer (ed.), 36-69.
Hendrickx s. 2006. Predynastic – Early Dynastic chronology.
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Hendrickx S. 2011. Naqada IIIA-b, a crucial phase in the relative
chronology of the Naqada culture. Archéo-Nil 21, 65-80.
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2004. Egypt at its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams.
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Jucha M. A. 2005. Tell el-Farkha 2. The Pottery of the Predynastic
Settlement (Phases 2-5). Krakow, Poznań.
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A view from Tell el-Farkha. SAAC 12, 63-74.
Jucha M. A. 2008b. Pottery from the graves. In M. Chłodnicki and
K. M. Ciałowicz with contributions by R. Abłamowicz, J. DębowskaLudwin, M. A. Jucha, A. Mączyńska, G. Pryc, M. Rozwadowski
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22-24 June 2009, 83-88, igs 33-41. (Acta Archaeologica
Pultuskiensia 2). Pułtusk.
Jucha M. A. 2009b. New Protodynastic Serekhs from the Nile Delta:
the case of inds from Tell el-Farkha. PAM 21, 625-643.
Jucha M. A. 2009c. beer jars of the Naqada III period. A view from
Tell el-Farkha. In T. J. Rzeuska and A. Wodzińska (eds), Studies
on Old Kingdom Pottery, 49-60. Warsaw.
Jucha M. A. 2010. Tell el-Murra. The Predynastic-Old Kingdom site
in the north-eastern Nile Delta. FolOr 47, 379-390.
Jucha M. A. 2012. Pottery from the cemetery. In M. Chłodnicki,
K. M. Ciałowicz and A. Mączyńska (eds), Tell el-Farkha 1.
Excavations 1998-2011, 77-86. Poznań, Krakow.
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Nagada-Kultur bis zum frühen alten Reich (Schichten III bis VI).
(AV 94). Mainz.
Köhler E. Ch. 2004. On the origin of Memphis – new excavations
in the Early Dynastic necropolis at Helwan. In S. Hendrickx et al.,
295-315.
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Helwan – establishing a ceramic corpus of the Naqada III period.
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of the Naqada culture? Archéo-Nil 21, 101-110.
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of Minshat Abu Omar. Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar 8, 73-94.
Kroeper K. 1988. The excavations of the Munich East-Delta expedition
in Minshat Abu Omar. In E. C. M. van den brink (ed.), The Archaeology of the Nile Delta. Problems and Priorities, 11-46. Amsterdam.
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Abu Omar. Cahiers de la céramique égyptienne 3, 23-31.
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frühgeschichtlicher Friedhof im Nildelta. Gräber 115-204. Mainz.
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Magdalena Kazimierczak
c/o Institute of Archaeology
Jagiellonian University
magdakazimierczak@poczta.onet.pl
S T U D I E S I N A N C I E N T A RT A N D C I v I L I Z AT I O N 18
Kraków 2014
Andrzej Ćwiek
Poznań
REd ANd BLACk WORLd
Abstract: The red and black formed in Egypt a système antinomique
(B. Mathieu). Desheret (the desert) represented the sphere of the wild and
the natural, while kemet (alluvial land) signiied cultivated and civilised
areas. These were not the only opposites involved. The red desert was
seen as the source, base and place of origin of the black land and its
inhabitants. This could also be compared to the raw vs worked (natural
vs artiicial) relationship. At the same time, it relected the relationships
between Seth and Osiris, evil and good and chaos and order. In developed
Egyptian cosmology and eschatology, red represented Ra, day, life and
activeness against black, which represented Osiris, night, death/rebirth
and potential states. From these connections, red/divine and black/royal
connotations emerged. Examples of the use of red and black can be found
in both architecture and art from Naqada I vessels through to New Kingdom
obelisks. This relects the fundamental ideology of these colours.
Keywords: Dualism; symbolic role of colours; Egyptian art
The Egyptian view of the world was based on dualisms (Servajean
2013). They governed both description and interpretation, relecting
the duality integral to the structure of the world itself. The two elements were
conceived either as opposites or as complementary to each other. Sometimes
they were even considered both opposite and complementary at the same
ime. One of the most basic aspects of the description and categorisation
of the world was colour (Wilkinson 1994, 104-125; Aufrère 1998; baines
2007, 240-262). Pairs of colours such as white and red, red and yellow and
black and white played an important symbolic role in texts and imagery.
The case of red and black is particularly signiicant. These colours were
DOI: 10.12797/SAAC.18.2014.18.08
A. Ćwiek
120
the two most basic1 and in ancient Egypt they formed the primitive palette
alongside white. This was enriched from the Old Kingdom onwards by
yellow, green, blue and grey (baines 2007, 243-249). When red and black
were paired they formed a système antinomique (Mathieu 2009, 29-30),
but in many contexts they complemented each other. In ancient Egypt,
black was semantically related to Nile mud, night, death and fertility,
whilst red represented blood, ire, the sun, the desert and life. The precise
meaning of the colour was therefore neither simple nor did it possess
an intrinsic signiicance. Instead, meaning was determined by context (Robins
2002, 293).
km (be) black and
The two colours in question were
var.
dSr (be) red. In a variant orthography,
, the word dSr
is represented by a hieroglyph of a sparrow (G 37 of Gardiner’s Sign List)
with the meaning of ‘bad’ or ‘small’, relecting the negative connotations
of the colour.
kmt ‘black Land (= Egypt)’ and
dSrt
‘Red Land (= desert)’ derived from these terms. The pharaoh was not only
the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, but also the ‘king of the black Land,
ruler of the Red Land’ (inscription on Amenhotep III’s statue from the Luxor
cache; Murnane 1995, 19).
Red ‘was considered a very potent colour, hot and dangerous, but also
life-giving and protective. It is both the colour of blood, a substance that
relates to life and death, and of ire, which may be beneicial or destructive.
It is also a colour frequently given to the sun, which may be red at its rising
or at its setting, and which can overwhelm with its heat or warm to bring life.’
(Robins 2002, 292; cf. Griiths 1972; Pinch 2001). black ‘was considered
the colour of fertile soil of kmt (‘the black Land’), one of the names for
Egypt; it therefore carried connotations of fertility and regeneration.’(Robins
2002, 291).
At the dawn of their culture, the Egyptians entered the valley from
the desert (Aufrère 2001, 158-159; Friedman 2002). From this point on,
these two distinct geographical spheres were interconnected, but preserved
their fundamentally diferent characters. The original contrast of the red
desert against the black cultivated area gradually developed into more
Mammals mostly see in only black and red and the primitive red-black vision of humans
was only in time diferentiated into more colours. It can also be noted that the complementary
and/or opposite roles of red and black in dichotomic descriptions of the world can be
found in many cultures and contexts, including the colour of playing cards; red for hearts
and diamonds, black for spades and clubs.
1
Red and black world
121
complex antinomies: wild – civilised, raw – artiicial, nature – culture
(Pl. 1: 1). It is probable that these connotations were present in the Egyptian
consciousness as early as the Predynastic period. Collared jars with matte
red surfaces and egg-shaped pots inished in shiny black have been
recorded in the funerary structures of HK6, as well as in the ritual enclosure
of HK29A at Hierakonpolis. They might have had a ‘symbolic signiicance
associated with the coming of the Nile lood when the dry (matte) red
land would become fertile (‘shiny’) black land. The presence of such
unique vessels at HK6 and HK29A suggests both had broadly similar,
but not identical, ritual requirements, which can be presumed to relate
to the concept of rebirth, be it of the deceased elite or the land and cosmic
order, and indicates a close connection between the two.’ (Friedman
2009, 88). It has also been suggested that black-topped vases of the time
might have come from ‘la culture agricole, serait alors celle d’une sorte
de bornage territorial, la terre noir cultivée, délimitant l’extension
du domaine désertique rouge...’ (Mathieu 2009, 29) (Fig. 1). This primitive
dichotomy was the basis for all further developments of red and black
symbolism.
Of a fundamental nature to Egyptian cosmogony was the gradual differentiation of the world into basic elements following the dualistic principle: Shu and Tefnut = light void and humidity, Geb and Nut = earth and
sky, Osiris (+Isis) and Seth (+Nephthys) = civilisation and wilderness,
cultivated land and wild
desert, fecundity and
sterility. In the case of
the last combination, both
aspects are indispensable and interconnected.
In myth, this is represented by Seth (personifying the red, infertile
desert) and Osiris (connected with the fertile
soil of the Nile valley).
The killing of Osiris by
Seth was a precondition
for the god’s rebirth
Fig 1. black-topped vessels, Naqada I, Poznań
(Fig. 2). Life was thus
Archaeological Museum inv. nos 1986:3/1-2. Photo
related to red and rebirth
by P. Silska
A. Ćwiek
122
Fig. 2. Red to black: Seth and Osiris. Drawing by the author
to black.2 Indeed, this formed the basis for the eternal cycle of life
transformation concept, which emerges in its red, active form from the black
before eventually turning back into black to be restored and start the cycle
again.
With respect to Seth, ‘the dangerous, uncontrolled aspects of red
connected the colour to notions of anger, as in the expression dSr jb (“red of
heart”), meaning “furious” or “raging”.’ (Robins 2002, 292). In the Pyramid
Texts § 1269c (TP 534), Seth is sent to the black Mountains to ‘make him
black’, i.e. make him calmer and more civilised (Mathieu 2009, 29).
These primordial meanings were buried deep in the Egyptian
consciousness and were also expressed in everyday life. An example
of this is the process of creating art. Although it would seem ‘natural’ that
a drawing should be made in black and corrected in red, the opposite
procedure occurred. After an apprentice had sketched a drawing (e.g. for
a relief) in red, it was given its inal shape by a master with black paint.
‘Raw’ and ‘civilised’ was thus expressed in a clear manner.
On papyri, headings and some other words were rubrics painted in
red ink to mark the names of dangerous gods, such as Seth and Apopis.
The name of Ra, however, was always written in black. This relected
the moral values ascribed to black/good and red/bad.
2
The colour black is also representative of gods who occupied the funerary sphere,
such as Anubis and Wepwawet, and those who had strong fertility connections, such as Min
and Amun-Kamutef.
Red and black world
123
The spheres in which the red-black antinomy occurs most clearly are
cosmology and eschatology (Kees 1943). The eternal cycle of the sun’s
journey was made up of the day (symbolised by red with the red sun-disk
on Ra’s head and his epithet bA jmj dSrw.f, which referred to the red setting
sun [Altenmüller 1972, 9-13]) and the night (connected to Osiris and
the night sun, with darkness and his black body of rebirth and regeneration)
(Fig. 3). Osiris ‘...was referred to in Egyptian texts as kmjj (“the black one”),
which not only alluded to his role in the underworld but also to his
resurrection after he was murdered. (...) Osiris was occasionally shown
with black skin, to refer to the renewing properties of Egypt’s black soil
and the underworld.’ (Robins 2002, 291). An example of this is the twelfth
hour of Amduat, in which Osiris is black and ithyphallic, a clear symbol
of his readiness for rebirth. Ra thus signiies day and the path from life
to death, whilst Osiris represents the night and the path from death to
new life (Pl. 2: 1). At the same time, the properties of the two gods gave
the colours the additional connotations of static/passive/potential (black) and
Fig. 3. Ra and Osiris in the cosmological cycle.
Photos from the author’s archive/public domain
A. Ćwiek
124
dynamic/active/realised (red). A geographical connection was also made.
Night was related to the north and day to the south, so black and red were
linked to directions as well.
The connection of Osiris (originally the embodiment of all dead kings)
and the fertile, civilised human land ruled by the pharaoh with black resulted
in the ‘royal’ associations of the colour. Meanwhile, the colour of the sun
and desert (more Ra’s and Seth’s than part of the human sphere) resulted
in the ‘divine’ connotations of red.
The complementary signiicance of red and black is also immanent
in the person of the goddess Hathor. The disk on her head was red,
but it was placed on black horns. Hathor was a complex deity, the patroness
of the living as well as of the dead. In terms of colour symbolism, red people3
lay in the black Land and black people lived in the Red Land.
This red-black-red connection was used in various ways in Egyptian
imagery. Ahmes-Nefertari was depicted with black skin, because she was
the royal mother of Amenhotep I and the whole dynastic line. The idea
of regeneration was thus symbolised, as she was the black fertile xprw
out of which the living red xprw emerged (Manniche 1979). This relects
the strong skin-colour-nature association in both phraseology and iconography (baines 2007, 245-246).
Another case of the symbolic use of colour for diferent stages
of life is the decoration of a double cartouche-shaped case of Tutankhamun.
The igure of the king is variously coloured in semi-cryptographic writing
of his prenomen, which represents the diferent xprw of his life. This should
be read as a cycle: yellow (child), red (mature), black (dead), and red (reborn)
(Silverman 1980; cf. Manniche 1982).
Red and black paint: reliefs and statuary
Mentuhotep Nebhepetra was depicted with red skin in reliefs
and statuary (e.g. the heads of Osiride statues of the british Museum,
inv. no. EA 720, Metropolitan Museum of Art, inv. no. 26.3.29, Museo
Gregoriano Egizio, inv. no. 22680) from the temple of Deir el-bahari,
but with black skin in a statue from bab el-Hosan (Pl. 2: 2) and in a relief
depicting him suckling from a Hathor cow (Hannover 1935.200.82).
Skin hues were a matter of strict convention in Egyptian art. The basic division into red
men and yellow women was abandoned during the Amarna period and in Ramesside times
males and females were usually represented with similar, reddish hues, though goddesses
were still yellow. A separate issue is the fact that pink was used for depictions of royal
women in the 18th and 19th Dynasties (Ćwiek 2007).
3
Red and black world
125
This latter representation stresses the regenerative powers of divine milk.
In a statue from Hathor’s Shrine of Thutmose III from Deir el-bahari,
however, Amenhotep II is red-skinned in a suckling scene, but black in
a igure standing in front of the cow (inv. no. JE 38575; Saleh and Sourouzian
1987, no. 138). black striding statues of the kings appear in the tombs
of the valley of the Kings, irstly for Hatshepsut and later for Thutmose III,
Amenhotep II, Tutankhamun (Pl. 1: 2), Ramesses I and Ramesses IX among
others.
Since Egypt was a Staat aus dem Stein (Evers 1929) and stones had
various diferent usages and values (baines 2007, 263-280), the role of black
and red stone is especially meaningful. ‘black stones were used in statuary
to evoke the regenerative qualities of Osiris and the renewal of the deceased.’
(Robins 2002, 291). ‘Stones such as rosy or golden quartzite and red granite
had a solar signiicance because of their colour and they could be used
to invoke the regenerative properties of the solar cycle. Royal statuary made
of such stones stressed the solar aspect of the kingship’ (Robins 2002, 292).
The symbolic nature of stones, such as the solar connotations of quartzite
(Aufrère 1991, 698-699; baines 2000, 36), can be found in architecture, as
well as in statuary. Several cases of the deliberate simultaneous use of red
and black stone in art and architecture can be mentioned:
1. Old Kingdom pyramid complexes
In Old Kingdom mortuary complexes, the material used was a matter
of deliberate choice and sophisticated usage was made of it (Ćwiek
2003, 321-324). For example, the red granite loral columns rising from
the black basalt loors in the courtyards of mortuary temples (Hofmeier
1993) symbolised plants emerging from Nile mud. In Teti’s mortuary temple
at Saqqara, the loor in the transverse corridor was made of travertine,
but the threshold of the southern entrance was made of red granite and that
of the northern entrance of basalt. Such usage of material may relect
a simple ‘geographical’ pattern. Granite would thus have been used for
the south and basalt for the north due to the provenance of these stones.4
The royal sarcophagi in the pyramid chambers were made of black
greywacke (Wissa 1994), whilst the canopic chests were made of red granite
(Dodson 1994).
A similar ‘geographical’ pattern of the use of various stones can be observed in Old
Kingdom royal statuary, including Khafra’s statues in the valley temple and Menkaura’s
triads (Ćwiek 2003, 313, notes 1294, 1321-1322, 1331).
4
126
A. Ćwiek
2. Mortuary complex of Mentuhotep Nebhepetra at Deir el-bahari
The usage of red and black in the reliefs and statuary of Mentuhotep’s
tomb complex has already been described above. The tomb of Mentuhotep,
which was accessed by a 150m long corridor, is also an example of
the deliberate use of red and black stone. The burial chamber, hewn out
of rock, was lined with red granite blocks. Inside, there was a large travertine
shrine with a red granite monolithic roof. between the shrine and the walls
of the chamber was a casing of black diorite (Arnold 1974, 48-49, pls 21-22,
38-40). It could be possible that these diorite plates were not placed around
the shrine for construction reasons (pace Arnold 1974, 48), but that the inal
resting place of the king was instead purposefully encased in black stone due
to its symbolic regenerative properties.
3. Red Chapel of Hatshepsut at Karnak
Hatshepsut carried out an immense building program at Karnak. Her
greatest achievement was the Red Chapel, a sanctuary for Amun’s divine
bark (Pl. 3: 1). It is made of red quartzite and black diorite. The walls are
mostly made of red quartzite blocks, prefabricated and decorated before
assemblage. The diorite blocks form the frame of the building (the lowermost
and uppermost layers of blocks for the base and cornice respectively), as well
as the door frames of the western and eastern façades (burgos and Larché
2008, 29-30). Here, the red-divine/solar and black-royal connotations are
a clear indication that the ruler is making and ‘framing’ a dwelling for
a deity. This interpretation is corroborated by the decoration of the diorite
band surrounding the base of the monument, which presents a traditional
royal serekh motif (Fig. 4), as well as by the fact that the lowermost layer
of blocks inside the chapel sanctuary and vestibule (inside the god’s
dwelling) is made of quartzite and not diorite.
In the ‘Palace of Maat’, where the Red Chapel was once located,
the two gates of the northern section were made of black granite, whilst
the one in the southern part was made of red granite (Gabolde 2005,
104-105). This ‘geographical’ principle, which connects the colours of
stone with the cardinal points (cf. the evidence from the pyramid temple
of Teti above), is also observed in the unique work of the female pharaoh:
Hatshepsut.
4. Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-bahari
The temple of Deir el-bahari bears various traces of the symbolic use
of material. Its vast and complex statuary once included the most important
Red and black world
127
Fig. 4. Detail of the Red Chapel: diorite dado with a serekh motif. Photo by the author
cult igures of the seated Hatshepsut. Since all statues of this female king were
removed by Thutmose III when he proscribed her, their original placement
in the temple can only be presumed. It now seems possible to suggest that
black (grano-)diorite statues of Hatshepsut (inv. no. MMA 30.3.3; Keller
2005, 159) and Thutmose I (inv. no. MMA 31.3.168; Keller 2005, 161,
attributed to Hatshepsut),5 were once located in the Royal Cult Complex
(in the Chapel of Hatshepsut and the Chapel of Thutmose I respectively)
and that the red granite statues of Hatshepsut (inv. nos MMA 29.3.3 + Leiden
F 1928/9.2; Keller 2005, 170-171; and inv. no. MMA 27.3.163; Keller
2005, 160) were placed in the Solar Cult Complex (Pl. 4). This attribution
is strongly suggested by the inds of the Polish mission in the temple.
Pieces of black diorite were found during excavation of the Royal Cult
Complex, whilst fragments of red granite were discovered in the Solar Cult
Complex. This its perfectly with the theory of a reconstructed magic ritual
cycle of rebirth and regeneration of the king, which started in the Chapel
of Hatshepsut in the Royal Cult Complex in the south and ended
I am much indebted to Dorothea Arnold for the suggestion that this statue represents
Thutmose I and for our inspirational discussion concerning the statuary of Djeser-Djeseru.
5
128
A. Ćwiek
in the Solar Cult Complex in the north (Karkowski 2005, 84).6 Red granite
was solar, whilst black diorite was both royal and Osirian stone.
The positioning of red in the north also connects it to the east (sunrise
and rebirth), whilst the black in the south relects a connection to the west
(emergence from the Netherworld7).
A minor but interesting use of red-black ‘geographic’ symbolism
can be noted in the wall decoration of the temple. The pupils in the udjat
eyes of the vulture cryptograms in the Hathor Shrine western vestibule wall
are coloured red in the northern vulture, but black in the southern vulture
(beaux et al. 2012, pl. 29). The two colours also appear in the eye hieroglyphs
of the bark Hall, but this time their order is reversed. The pupil is red
on the southern wall, but black on the northern wall (these can be seen
in scenes with the royal family, cf. Naville 1906, pl. CXLv). It could be
speculated that this reversal was an allusion to the concept of blacknorth-night-Osiris-renewal/rebirth and red-south-day-Ra-creation/birth
mentioned above. In this context, the north is joined to the west and
the south to the east.
These seemingly opposite connotations are not, however, contradictory.
Whether a north/red – south/black or north/black – south/red order
is adopted, it may still relect the cycle of the solar journey and represent
eternal transformation around an east-north-west-south circle (cf. Westendorf
1966).
5. The Osireion (‘Cenotaph’ of Seti at Abydos)
The Central Hall of the Osireion is built of red granite (pillars and
architraves) and red sandstone (walls), but the blocks are joined with dovetail
cramps of black granite, which bear names of the king (Frankfort 1933, 17).
This may relect the red-divine and black-royal principle again.
It is possible that the two red granite statues of Hatshepsut represented the two consecutive
phases of her building programme, which may be relected by the smaller and larger altar
in the solar court. A statue of Thutmose I might have also occurred in the Solar Complex,
as a focus of rituals starting at his statue in his ofering chapel in the Royal Cult Complex.
Another issue is the original placement of the ‘White Hatshepsut’ (indurated limestone
seated statue inv. no. MMA 29.3.2). It is tempting to attribute it to the Main Sanctuary,
but this must remain in the realm of mere speculation.
7
Through false doors in the western walls of the Chapel of Hatshepsut and the Chapel
of Thutmose I. It seems that the kings were supposed to come from the Kv 20, their common
tomb in the valley of the Kings, and (having passed through all regeneration rituals)
to return to the tomb through the back (western) wall of a niche in the Upper Anubis Shrine.
The need for Anubis’ help in this transfer was the reason for the addition of this room
to the Solar Cult Complex.
6
Red and black world
Pl. 1: 1 – Relationship of desheret and kemet. Drawing by the author
2 – Red and black images of Tutankhamun.
Photos from the author’s archive/public domain
PLATE 1
PLATE 2
A. Ćwiek
Pl. 2: 1 – Ra and Osiris connotations; 2 – Red and black images of Mentuhotep Nebhepetra.
Photo from the author’s archive/public domain
Red and black world
PLATE 3
Pl. 3: 1 – The Red Chapel of Hatshepsut at Karnak. Photo by the author;
2 – Combined picture of the Athribis obelisk with its base, now in the Cairo Museum garden.
Photo by the author; 3 – Obelisk from Athribis, berlin inv. no. ̈Mb 12800; currently
at the Poznań Archaeological Museum. Photo by P. Silska
PLATE 4
A. Ćwiek
Pl. 4 – Hypothetical attribution of the seated statues of Hatshepsut in the rooms of the Upper Terrace of the temple of Deir el-bahari.
Photos of inv. nos MMA 30.3.3; 31.3.168 and 29.3.3 + Leiden F.1928/9.2 reproduced from Roehrig 2005, igs 65, 67, 95.
Photo of inv. no. MMA 27.3.163 by the author
Red and black world
129
6. Ramesside statuary
The text on a stele of Seti I from Aswan states: ‘Year 9... His Majesty
caused great statues of black granite to be made. Then His Majesty discovered
a new quarry for statues of black granite, whose crowns (would be) of red
quartzite from the Red Mountain.’ (Kitchen 1982, 35). As demonstrated
by Peter brand, however, the text refers not to granite and quartzite,
but to two-coloured granodiorite/granite, the term bjA denoting not only
quartzite, but also red stone in general (brand 1998, 306-308). It seems
that Seti I started and Ramesses II continued the custom of making objects
of diferently coloured stone with deliberately chosen border areas between
veins of red granite and black granodiorite (brand 1998, 306-308; cf. Aston
et al. 2000, 35-37). These works include the naos of Seti I in Turin (brand
1998, 154), the colossi of the Luxor temple (brand 1998, 307-308 and
n. 708), a statue of ‘Young Memnon’ (british Museum inv. no. EA 19; brand
1998, 307-308, n. 709; Strudwick 2006, 202-203), a head in Cairo (Russmann
1990, 148-149), a head in Hildesheim (inv. no. 1882; Seipel 1992, 288-289,
formerly attributed to Seti I) and a head in Munich (inv. no. GL 301; Ćwiek
2005, ig. 32).
7. Obelisks
Obelisks were royal monuments, an ideal royal mnw, with primarily
a solar meaning (Martin 1977). As a rule, they were made of red stone, usually
granite, but quartzite is also attested in the obelisks of Teti in Heliopolis
(Habachi 1984, 42-43), of Seti I in Gebel Gulab quarry in West Aswan and
fragments of another found in Alexandria (brand 1998, 148, 312-313),
of Ramesses Iv (inv. no. CG 17026) and in two small obelisks of Seti II
in front of the irst pylon at Karnak (Habachi 1984, 99-101). However,
the obelisks of Thoth at Hermopolis made by Nectanebo I (inv. no. bM EA
523, 524) and also those of Thutmose III (inv. no. CG 17017), Horemheb
(inv. no. CG 17018), Seti I and Ramesses II (Marseille Musée de la vieille
Charité no. 201) were made of black siltstone or greywacke (bekhenstone). The symbolism connecting red material to the sun/day and black
to the moon/night was strengthened by the metals used for covering
the shafts; electrum, gold or red copper was used for solar obelisks,
whilst black copper was used for lunar obelisks (as proved by inscriptions
on Nectanebo obelisks saying bnbnt.f m Hmtj km ‘its pyramidion is [covered]
in black copper’).
An obelisk from Athribis in the Poznań Archaeological Museum
(Pl. 3: 3), which is on loan from berlin (inv. no. ̈Mb 12800; Ćwiek
130
A. Ćwiek
2005, 30-31), is a special case. It is made of black granite/granodiorite,
the material for which the only parallel is that of Seti I’s obelisk that was
found in the harbour of Alexandria (brand 1998, 147-148). The Poznań
obelisk is one of a pair, to which part of another shaft and two bases of
quartzite are attributed (Schott 1939, the material of the bases is erroneously
described as red granite). The bases (at present in the Cairo Museum garden)
are now decorated with scenes presenting Merenptah. The inscriptions
on the Poznań obelisk belong to Ramesses II, Merenptah and Seti II,
but there are indications that the monument was usurped from an earlier
ruler. The most probable original owner is Amenhotep III, who is known
to have conducted extensive work in Athribis (Kozlof and bryan 1992,
106-108). The Athribis obelisks were carefully designed, which is shown
by the fact that the Poznań obelisk has a base of 53 x 53cm (1 x 1 cubit)
and was once c. 3.6m high (seven cubits; six cubits for the shaft, and
one cubit for the pyramidion). It seems that the red stone for the bases
and the black for the shafts was also a deliberate choice (Pl. 3: 2).
The obelisk, which represented both a royal person and royal culture through
its black colour, sprang up from a base of natural and primeval red, thereby
expressing the same concept as black-topped pottery from the beginnings
of the Egyptian civilisation.
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Andrzej Ćwiek
Institute of Prehistory
Adam Mickiewicz University
Poznań Archaeological Museum
andrzejcwiek@yahoo.com
S T U D I E S I N A N C I E N T A RT A N D C I v I L I Z AT I O N 18
Kraków 2014
Joanna Popielska-Grzybowska
Pułtusk
PICTURING THE PHARAOH
THROUGH LANGUAGE – REMARkS
ON THE LINGUISTIC IMAGE OF
THE EGyPTIAN kING IN THE OLd
kINGdOM RELIGIOUS TEXTS
Abstract: The author of the paper aims at scrutinising the linguistic
image of the Egyptian pharaoh in the so-called Pyramid Texts.
Was the Egyptian ruler perceived as a human representative of the god
on Earth or rather was he a or the god himself? Special emphasis will
be put on names and epithets of the King when described or referred
to in religious texts of the Old Kingdom. This study is planned as a part
of a future research project on picturing the pharaoh through language
in religious and royal texts from the beginning of the Old Kingdom till
the end of the New Kingdom, and realised in cooperation with Dr. Andrzej
Ćwiek and Jadwiga Iwaszczuk.
Furthermore, the paper is also a presentation of use of ethnolinguistic
methods in Egyptology.1 Using scholarly methods of the ‘linguistic worldview’ research project in which the present author participates, it is intended
to study selected ancient Egyptian concepts. Although language analysis
as well as widely understood and studied ‘life context’ of ancient religious
An interdisciplinary project Archaeo-Linguistic Worldview (in Polish: ArcheoJOS;
outlines have been presented at the international conference EUROJOS 7 in June 2013)
has been started, which combines studies on diferent archaeological sources, written ones
as well as so-called ‘material’ ones. This project is aimed at a thorough reconstruction
of the concept ‘home’ in old cultures (as for now ancient and Slavonic), using the ‘linguistic
worldview’ methodology, but adjusted to our ield of research.
1
DOI: 10.12797/SAAC.18.2014.18.09
136
J. Popielska-Grzybowska
notions let us only a textual and linguistic reconstruction of the world
presented, concurrently, helps us understand better the Egyptian religious
way of description and thinking.
Keywords: Pyramid Texts; pharaoh; Egyptian texts; linguistic method
in Egyptology; ArcheoJOS
Scholars have pondered the status of the Egyptian ruler. Was he to
be perceived as a human representative of the god on Earth or rather was
he a or the god himself? The present author would like to show some
signiicant aspects of the image of the Egyptian pharaoh created through
language used in the Pyramid Texts. This study is a continuation of the topic
earlier studied by this author (see Popielska-Grzybowska 2013a), but still
it has a preliminary character.
Concurrently, the paper also shows the use of elements of the linguistic
method in Egyptology. Recently, ‘linguistic worldview’ (in Polish Językowy
Obraz Świata; JOS in short) research has been highly developed by Polish
linguists and ethnolinguists from the Maria Curie-Skłodowska University
in Lublin, namely for example: J. bartmiński (2009), R. Tokarski (1999)
and A. Pajdzińska (Pajdzińska and Tokarski 1996, 143-158).
It has a long history going back to ancient times and the Rhetoric
of Aristotle and the topoi. Later, this method emerged in the French and
Italian Enlightenment and then the German linguistic thought of Wilhelm
von Humboldt (1999 [1836], the term Weltansicht) and L. Weisgerber (1963).
It is also derived from the American theory of ‘relativism of language’
by E. Sapir (1949) and b. L. Whorf (1956).
Language analysis as well as the widely understood Sitz im Leben
(‘life context’) of ancient religious notions give us only a textual and
linguistic reconstruction of the world presented, but concurrently bring
us closer to the Egyptian religious way of perceiving reality, the way
of thinking and describing religious beliefs and religious reality
by the ancients.
Linguistic worldview methods are used almost exclusively to study
contemporary languages and texts. However, using the same adjusted
method while studying ancient written sources one can scrutinise linguistic
images of the pharaoh in the analysed texts. Due to the fact that the meaning
of the word is a speciic interpretation of a designation, there are diferent
perceptions of the same reality described through language/languages.
It is of course subjective interpretation, as every interpretation in reality is,
but while analysing the language itself, namely its grammar, derivatives,
Picturing the pharaoh through language...
137
phraseology (e.g. word plays, onomatopoeic efects etc), categorisation
through language (for instance ‘word ield’), connotations, one can develop
a very thorough study concerning ancient Egyptian perceptions still present
in the language used. It is more than obvious that every categorisation,
the introductory one included, strongly inluences the set of characteristics
analysed and the way they are organised within the research.
Hereinafter there will be presented a selection of diagnostic excerpts
of the Old Kingdom religious texts to outline the image discussed.
The texts under discussion are abundant in descriptions, designations
and varying epithets of the pharaoh. However, the name ‘pharaoh’
pr aA itself was not used in the Pyramid Texts. Rulers are designated with
their personal names and with pronouns. The texts are directed to them
in the second person sg. telling or in some cases if need be even ordering
them what and how to do. Some other passages perhaps were meant
to be read by the pharaohs themselves – and in that cases the text was
written in the irst person sg. or was written in the third person sg. as a part
of a narration. Furthermore, the monarch is of course named nswt and
/or bjt (see Allen’s [2005, 87] translation of PT spell 412 § 724b).
The King is the one who was born before anything and anyone else
(cf. e.g. PT 571, 486, 697). This was described for instance as follows:
§ 1040a [ppj ms] m nw
§ 1040b nj xpr.t pt nj xpr.t tA
§ 1040c nj xpr.t smntj nj xpr.t Xnnw
§ 1040d nj xpr.t snD pw xpr Hr jrt Hrw
‘[Pepi was born] in Nu before the sky came into being, before Earth
came into being, before the establishment came into being, before the uproar
came into being, before the fear that came into being because of the eye
of Horus that had not yet come into being.’
However, the spell 571 § 1466, P 511 mentions the King’s mother
being pregnant with him. These seemingly contradictory ideas in reality
are complementary one to another, and do not preclude each other
(see the translation below).
Furthermore, often the imperative mood, used to create desirable
reality (see Popielska-Grzybowska 2012), is employed when the body
of the pharaoh is commanded not to decay, not to rot and consequently
the King is assured that his body will not decay, will not rot:
§ 721a j.xr wr Hr gs.f
§ 721b nmnm jm ndjt
§ 721c Tz tpj.f jn ra
138
J. Popielska-Grzybowska
§ 721d bwt.f qdd msD.f bAgj
§ 722a jf n NN pn
§ 722a m HwA m jmk.(k) m Dw sT.k
§ 722c nj swAA rd.k nj SAss nmt.k
§ 722d nj xnd.k Hr HwAt wsjr
§ 723a sAH.k pt mr sAH spd bA.k mr spdt
§ 723b j.bA.k bA.tj wAS.k wAS.tj
§ 723c aHa bA.k mm nTrw m Hrw Hr jb jrw
§ 724a xpr SAt.k r jb nTrw
§ 724b mr nt tpt bjt mr mjzwt tpt nswt
§ 724c mr Hnzkt tpt mnTw
§ 724d nDr.k jr a j.xmw-sk
§ 725a nj Htm qsw.k nj znw jf.k NN
§ 725b nj Hr awt.k jr.k
§ 725c n Twt js wa m nTrw
‘As the Great One fell on his side, as he in Nedit quivered, his head was
raised by Ra, for his abomination is sleep, he loathes inertness.
O lesh of the King, do not decay, do not rot, do not smell unpleasant!
Your foot will not be overpassed, your stride will not be crossed, and
you shall not tread on decomposition of Osiris.
You shall attain the sky like Orion, your ba shall be eicient like Sothis.
You shall become bA being bA, you shall become honoured being honoured.
May your bA stand amongst the gods as Horus in the middle of jrw.
May become your fury against the heart of the gods like the Red Crown
atop the King of Lower Egypt and like the bright Crown atop the King
of Upper Egypt, like the plait atop the mnTw-beduin. You shall grasp the arm
of the Imperishable Stars.
Your bones will not parish, your lesh will not be weak, o King, your
limbs will not be away from you, for you are one of the gods.’ (PT spell 412
§ 721a-725c, T 228).
The pharaoh’s destination is the sky, where he ascends and resides
governing the gods, the living and the dead (see e.g. PT spell 213, 710A),
being simultaneously one of the Imperishable Stars, and the oldest and most
powerful god – even more powerful than his father, the creator god Atum.
His place is among the gods in the sky:
§ 1466a jwr mwt nt NN jm.f jm nwt
§ 1466b ms NN pn jn jt.f tm
§ 1466c nj xpr.t pt nj xpr.t tA
§ 1466d nj xpr.t rmT nj ms.t nTrw nj xpr.t mt
Picturing the pharaoh through language...
139
(...)
§ 1469a j.xm-sk pw NN zA pt wrt Hrt-jb Hwt-srqt
§ 1469b Sd.n n.k ra NN pn r pt anx NN pn
§ 1469c mr anx aq m jmnt pt pr.f m jAbt pt
‘The King’s mother was pregnant with him, who is in the Lower Sky,
the King was fashioned by his father Atum before the sky came into being,
before Earth came into being, before people came into being, before the
gods were born, before death came into existence.
(...)
This King is an Imperishable Star, son of the great sky that is in the heart
of the enclosure of Selket. Ra has taken this King to himself to the sky and
thus this King may live as the one who has entered the west of the sky lives
when he emerges in the east of the sky.’ (PT spell 571 § 1466, 1468c-1469,
P 511).
Moreover, the pharaoh will not perish, neither in a material nor
in a spiritual sense, because he is kA (e.g. PT spell 215) and ‘kA-maker’
(PT spell 506) and controls the gods and their kAw (e.g. PT spells 426, 592
and Nt 226).
As a consequence of all assumed characteristics, all assumed identities
by means of metamorphoses, the monarch is the one who does not die
the death, but who has gone away alive (cf. spell 213: Popielska-Grzybowska
1999; Popielska-Grzybowska 2001):
§ 654a jhj jhj Tz Tw NN pw
§ 654b Szp n.k tpj.k jnq n.k qsw.k
§ 654c sAq n.k awt.k
§ 654d wxA n.k tA jr jf.k
§ 655a Szp n.k t.k j.xm xsD Hnqt.k j.xmt amA
§ 655b aHa.k jr aAw xsf rxwt
(...)
§ 657e Tz Tw NN pw nj mjjt.k2
‘Oho, oho! Raise yourself, o King, receive your head, collect your bones,
gather your (body) members together, throw of Earth from your body,
receive your bread which does not grow mouldy and your beer which does
not grow sour, and stand at the door which restrains the (common) people.
(…)
Rise yourself, o King, for you have not died!’ (PT spell 373 § 654a655b, § 657e, T 204).
Evidently, the King is distinguished from the others, from the people
2
variant writing: mt.k.
140
J. Popielska-Grzybowska
as he himself is perceived as rather a or perhaps even the god, for he was
after many diferent metamorphoses inally identiied with the creator god
Atum (Popielska-Grzybowska, forthcoming):
§ 1468d tmjw mt n mt nb nj mt NN n mt nb
§ 1469a j.xm-sk pw NN zA pt wrt Hrt-jb Hwt-srqt
‘O you who die not because of any dead, the King will not die because
of any dead, for the King is an Imperishable Star, son of the great sky that
is in the heart of the enclosure of Selket.’ (PT spell 571 § 1468d-1469a,
P 511).
The pharaoh is seen as a self-suicient, holy being who can raise himself
up to the stars, becoming one of them:
§ 537a ttj pw Dsr jm xnt Tzz HAt
§ 537b sbA kssw n.f nTrw sdAw n.f psDtj
§ 537c jn Drt ttj wTz.s sw
‘Teti is a holy one with sweeping forefront, with lifted brow, a star
to whom the gods bow, at whom the Two Enneads tremble. It is Teti’s hand
which will raise him up.’ (PT spell 328 § 537, T 13).
Moreover, the King was also introduced by Sia – the embodiment
of wisdom and understanding, as this one who unites hearts:
§ 267a NN p Hr kAw dmD jbw
‘This is the King who is over the spirits, who unites hearts’ (PT spell
250 § 267a, W 161).
Several times, the ruler is called a bull. Sometimes, more details are
given, for instance:
§ 513a wnjs pj kA jAxwj Hr jb jrt.f
‘Unis is a bull with efulgence in the middle of his eyes.’ (PT spell 319
§ 513a, W 224).
Furthermore for example:
§ 698d ttj pw jrt tw nt ra sDrt jwr.t/jj.t mst ra nb
‘Teti is that eye of the sun that spends the night conceived and is born
every day.’ (PT spell 402 § 698d, T 278), but concurrently he happens to
be designated as a serpent (e.g. PT spell 318), a beetle or a bird (PT spell
655, spell 667A § 1944, spell 668) and many other creatures, various types
of beings, both divine and deriving from fauna and lora.
To the above-mentioned passages can be added a magniicent piece
of writing, the so-called Cannibal Hymn that provides us with a lot
of valuable information on Egyptian pharaohs, demonstrating vividly
the force, power and even omnipotent sovereignty of the King. The text
has been studied thoroughly and interpreted in many ways (see for instance:
Picturing the pharaoh through language...
141
Goebs 1998, 447-460; Eyre 2002; Goebs 2003, 2950; Goebs 2004,
143-173, and bibliographies therein). It gives a profound image
of understanding the foundations of an Egyptian King’s position and
potency; his rights to rule the world. All of this power, legitimised through
identiication with his father, the creator god, lord of All, Atum, and the fact
that he is the irstborn son makes him more potent than the father himself is:
§ 395a jw Spsw NN m pt jw wsr.f m Axt
§ 395b mr tm jt.f ms sw jw ms.n.f sw wsr sw r.f
(...)
§ 407a NN pj sxm wr sxm m sxmw
(...)
§ 408a NN pj nTr sms r smsw
‘The glory of the King is in the sky,
His power is in the horizon
Like his father Atum who gave birth to him,
Although he gave birth to the King,
the King is mightier than he.
(...)
The King is the great power
Who has power over the powers
(...)
The King is a god,
Older than the oldest.’ (PT spell 273-274 § 395, 407a, 408a, W 180).
However, in sharp contrast to the ways of picturing the pharaoh
as presented above, there seem to be excerpts in which the King is called
weak and feeble:
‘It is said about the King: he who perished, he is feeble’ (PT spell 343 §
558, T 156).
Or he is called little:
§ 392c NN pj Srr jm
‘Is the King the little one there?’ (PT spell 272 § 392c, W 179).
Maintaining the irst translations of this phrase in the interrogative
mood, but keeping in mind recent translations in the indicative mood
by J. P. Allen (2005, 50) and R. bertrand (2004, 107, 214) and considering
the whole context it may seem clear that little one is used to designate
a child – the son of the creator god (see Popielska-Grzybowska and JózefówCzerwińska 2011).
Moreover to show a more complete image of the pharaoh it is necessary
to point that, inter alia, Unis received a name of a lower as well:
142
J. Popielska-Grzybowska
§ 264a j jAAw dmDjj n Spsj m rn.f pw
§ 264b NN pj nw n zSzS wbn m tA wab
‘O you two ighters! (Sethe 1935, 26; Faulkner 1969, 61 footnote 1)
Tell the Noble one, whoever he may be, (Faulkner 1969, 61 footnote 2)
the king is this zSzS-lower which sprang up clean from the Earth.’ (PT spell
249 § 264a-b, W 160).
Nonetheless, as it has already been discussed by this author (PopielskaGrzybowska 2011) and as mentioned above, the aim of the passages was
not to depreciate the King, but rather to show him as a child of the creator
god. Therefore, it was natural to call him little and weak before the inal
metamorphosis into the creator took place (see also Popielska-Grzybowska,
forthcoming).
The King is then the son of the creator god Atum as has already been
underlined herein. It is very intriguing that Shu is informed that the King
is the irstborn and the oldest son of Atum. Therefore, it appears that Shu
is told that the King is Shu himself and identical with him in his identity
of the irstborn, the irst creation of Atum and in this way, by these speciic
means, he is son and father – the All – simultaneously (see PopielskaGrzybowska 2013b; Popielska-Grzybowska 2013c).
§ 1870a Sw zA tm pw wsjr NN pn
§ 1870b Twt zA wr n tm wtwt.f
§ 1871a jSS.n Tw tm m r.f m rn.k n Sw
‘O Shu, this Osiris the King is the son of Atum. You are the eldest son of
Atum, his irstborn; Atum has sneezed you out from his mouth in your name
of Shu.’ (PT spell 660 § 1870-1871, N 400).
The pharaoh, namely the son being a part of the father, is predestined
to abide where the father god resides, consequently controlling and ruling
the heritage of his divine parent:
§ 160a ra tm j n.k zA.k j n.k NN
§ 160b sja n.k sw Sn n.k sw m Xnw awj.k
§ 160c zA.k pw n Dt.k n Dt
‘Sun, Atum, your son is coming to you, the King is coming to you. Raise
him up, enclose him within your embrace, for he is the son of your body
forever.’ (PT spell 217 § 160a-c, W 150).
Or similarly:
§ 213a tm sja n.k wnjs pn Sn n.k sw m Xnw awj.k
§ 213b zA.k pw n Dt.k n Dt
‘O Atum, raise this Unis up to you, enclose him within your embrace,
for he is your son of your body forever.’ (PT spell 222 § 213, W 155).
Picturing the pharaoh through language...
143
In such a way every god is an emanation and embodiment of the creator,
thus the King is concurrently an emanation and embodiment of them all.
He is truly complete as the creator by comprising the most important
characteristics and aspects of all the gods in him:
147b Tn kw jn.sn m rn.k n nTr xpr.k j.tm.t (m) nTr nb
148a tp.k m Hrw dAt j.xm-sk
148b mxnt.k m xntj-jrtj j.xm-sk
148c msDrwj.k zAtj tm j.xm-sk jrtj.k zAtj tm j.xm-sk
148d fnD.k m zAb j.xm-sk jbHw.k spdw j.xm-sk
149a awj.k Hp dwA-mjwt.f dbH.k pr.k r pt prr.k
149b rdwj.k jmst qbH-snw.f dbH.k hA.k jr nwt hAA.k
149c awt.k zAtj tm j.xm-sk
149d nj sk.k nj sk kA.k Twt kA
‘Raise yourself – say they, in your name of god, become complete
of every god:
Your head is that of Horus of the Duat, O Imperishable!
Your face is that of chentj-jrtj, O Imperishable!
Your ears are those of the Twins of Atum, O Imperishable!
Your eyes are those of the Twins of Atum, O Imperishable!
Your nose is that of the Jackal, O Imperishable!
Your teeth are those of Sopdu, O Imperishable!
Your arms are those of Hep and Duamutef,
which you need to ascend to the sky and you shall ascend
your legs are Jmsetj and Kebehsenuf,
which you need to descend to the lower sky and you shall descend.
All your members are the Twins of Atum, O Imperishable!
You shall not perish and your ka shall not perish – you are ka.’ (PT
spell 215 § 147b-149d, W 148).
The monarch is also the liquids constituting bodies, physical part
of the existence (compare Nyord 2009):
§ 1263c NN pw Trw prw m ra fdt prt m jst
‘The King is the blood/the gore which came from Ra and the sweat
which came from Isis.’ (PT spell 533 § 1263c, P 482).
The inal and most signiicant metamorphosis of the King who passed
away is the one into his father – the creator as expressed in many spells,
and clearly and verbatim for instance in spell 213 (for a detailed study of this
issue see Popielska-Grzybowska 1999; Popielska-Grzybowska 2001) and
in spell 690 as follows:
§ 2097c jw.n.k ppj nfr-kA-ra pw m jwnw nD.tj rD n.k jb.k m Xt.k
144
J. Popielska-Grzybowska
§ 2098a Hr.k m zAb jf.k m tm
§ 2098b bA.k m Xn.k sxm.k HA.k jst tp awj.k nbt-Hwt m xt.k
§ 2099a dbn.k jAwt Hrwt dndn.k jAwt stSt
§ 2099b jn Sw Hna tfnt mAaw Tw pr.k m jwnw
‘You have come, Pepi Neferkara, from Junu, you are being protected,
and your heart having been placed in your body for you. Your face is that
of the Jackal, your lesh is that of Atum, your soul is within you, your power
is about you, Isis is before you and Nephthys is behind you, you encompass
the Horite Mounds and you go around the Sethite Mounds. It is Shu and
Tefnut who guide you when you depart from Junu.’ (PT spell 690 § 2097c2099b, N 524)
Consequently, the pharaoh is the gist, the essence of every being, of every
god as well, namely of everything. From the times when the Pyramid Texts
were introduced and used only for him as the ruler of the living and thosewhose-seats-are-hidden (namely the dead), the ancient Egyptian pharaoh
was perceived and pictured as a complete creature, who, after necessary
metamorphoses, reached his destination in the sky as the creator god ‘Atumthe-complete-one’ who comprises in him all – positive and negative –
aspects of the created world. Therefore, it is said in the Pyramid Texts about
the pharaoh:
§ 1609a wsjr nmtjj m zAf mr n ra Twt kA n nTrw nb
‘O Osiris Nemtiemzaf Merenre, you are the essence of all the gods.’
(PT spell 589 § 1609a, M 32a) (for a more detailed study of some aspects
see also Popielska-Grzybowska, forthcoming). The pharaoh is then
the essence of all the gods which came forth at the moment of creation from
‘Atum-the-complete’.
To sum up, it shall be noted that using the linguistic worldview methods
enables us to perceive the main ideas of the Egyptian religion embodied
in the word-portrait of the pharaoh in the Pyramid Texts. These ideas concern
kA of the creator and the King, the concept of the creator, generations matters
and the relations between father and son.
Picturing the pharaoh through language...
145
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Literature. Writings from the Ancient World 23). Atlanta.
Bartmiński J. 2009. Językowe podstawy obrazu świata. Lublin.
Bertrand R. 2004. Textes de l’Égypte ancienne. Les textes de la Pyramide
d’Ounas traduit de l’égyptien ancien. vol. 1: Traduction et transliteration. Michigan.
eyre ch. 2002. The Cannibal Hymn. A Cultural and Literary Study.
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Faulkner r. o. 1969. Egyptian Pyramid Texts. Oxford.
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Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Egyptologists,
447-460. (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 82). Leuven.
Goebs K. 2003. Zerstörung als Erneuerung der Totenliteratur: Eine
kosmische Interpretation des Kannibalenspruches. GM 194, 29-50.
Goebs K. 2004. The Cannibal spell: continuity and change in the Pyramid
Text and the Coin Text versions. In S. bickel and b. Mathieu (eds),
D’un monde à l’autre. Textes des Pyramides versus Textes des Sarcophages. Actes de la table ronde internationale “Textes des Pyramides
versus Textes des Sarcophages”, IFAO, 24-26 septembre 2001, 143-173.
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Egyptian Coin Texts. (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications 37).
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konwencja i kreacja. Pamiętnik Literacki 4, 143-158.
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is not, for non-conformance of words is god’s abomination” (PT spell
511 § 1160b-1161a) – unique notions of Egyptian religion in the light
of anthropology of word. In J. Popielska-Grzybowska and J. Iwaszczuk (eds), Studies on Religion: Seeking Origins and Manifestations of Religion, 123-129. (Acta Archaeologica Pultuskiensia 3).
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and J. Krejči (eds), Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2010 2, 680-693,
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a współczesnością. Wybrane przykłady kontynuacji i zmian w historii,
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you are the essence of all the gods”. The Pyramid Texts as a Source
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królu Unisie? – w świetle źródeł i antropologii kulturowej.
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Whorf B. L. 1956. Language, Thought and Reality. Selected Writings
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Joanna Popielska-Grzybowska
Ancient Cultures Department
Pultusk Academy of Humanities
joannapopielskag@hotmail.com
S T U D I E S I N A N C I E N T A RT A N D C I v I L I Z AT I O N 18
Kraków 2014
Natalia Małecka-Drozd
Krakow
NOTES ON THE ORIGIN
OF CASEMATE FOUNdATION
PLATFORMS IN ANCIENT EGyPT
Abstract: Casemate foundation platforms appeared in Egypt in
the middle of the 2nd millennium BC during the 2nd Intermediate period.
As they are similar in nature to palace-citadel structures from the capital
of Egypt under the Hyksos, Avaris, the possibility of their being Asiatic
in origin has been considered. Recently, however, similar structures from
Deir el-Ballas have been associated with Nubian funerary architecture.
Yet making a choice between these two hypotheses means forgetting about
the achievements of Egyptian brick architecture. The link between casemate foundation platforms and high Nile loods, as well as their structural
features, unquestionably suggest Egyptian origin. Over the course of this
paper, I would like to consider if the appearance of casemate platforms
in the 2nd Intermediate period and the beginning of the New Kingdom
could be related to mastaba burials and the local development of foundation
laying methods.
Keywords: Ancient Egypt; architecture; foundation platforms; Near
Eastern inluences
Development of structures on casemate platforms
Mudbrick casemate platforms are one of the most characteristic features
of Egyptian architecture of both the 1st millennium bC and the Roman period.
being an efective form of foundation, the platforms were used in residential
buildings, temples and defensive fortiications. The earliest structures built
using this technique appeared as early as the 2nd Intermediate period
DOI: 10.12797/SAAC.18.2014.18.10
150
N. Małecka-Drozd
and they continued to be built from the New Kingdom onwards. After several
years of research, their evolution process can now be revealed (MałeckaDrozd 2012, 69-80; Małecka-Drozd 2013, 77-83).
The irst example of a building which can be considered to have
been erected on a casemate platform is a palace from area F/II of Avaris
in the eastern Nile Delta (bietak and Forstner-Müller 2006; bietak and
Forstner-Müller 2009). The structure, which covers an area of approximately
18,000m2, dates to the early Hyksos period (early 15th Dynasty) and is
associated with King Khairan. The building is made up of several sectors
arranged around a central tower (Treppenhaus 1) and its construction can
be divided into two phases (Fig. 1). In the initial period of occupation
Fig. 1. The early Hyksos palace (15th Dynasty) from area F/II in Avaris.
Redrawn and simpliied from bietak 2010, ig. 21
Notes on the origin of casemate foundation platforms...
151
of the tower, the palace merely contained several utility rooms, a bathroom
and a staircase to the upper loor, which was later illed in with earth.
A complex of long, rectangular chambers (probably storerooms) (Fig. 1:
part A) was located directly to the north of the tower. To its southwest and
southeast was another set of rooms, which were also illed in with earth
at some point. Chambers situated southwest of the storerooms would
probably have constituted a ramp leading to the upper part of the building.
Additional sets of long, narrow storerooms (Fig. 1: part G) constructed
in a later phase (Fig. 1: part E) were located to the west and south
of the central tower. A courtyard (Fig. 1: part b) surrounded by casemate
walls was situated further south. According to its discoverers, this was
the place where cult activities, Near Eastern in character, would have taken
place. The southwestern end of the palace was marked by a casemate tower,
known as ‘Treppenhaus 2’. Its eastern and western sides were demarcated
by courtyards (Fig. 1: parts C and D). The overall structural arrangement
of the palace is an example of the initial evolutionary phase of casemate
platform architecture in Egypt.
Closely related to the early Hyksos palace is the North Palace discovered
in Deir el-ballas, Upper Egypt (Fig. 2; Smith 1958, 157-158; Lacovara
1981, 121; Lacovara 1990, 1-2; Lacovara 2006, 188-189). This structure,
although similar in nature to the construction just discussed, is believed
to represent the next stage in development of casemate buildings. The palace
dates from the end of the 17th to the beginning of the 18th Dynasty. More
axial in layout than its predecessor, it is characterised by its fairly large,
central platform and possesses a set of long, narrow chambers surrounded
by columned courtyards and rooms. As there are no clearly visible remains
of a ramp leading up to the upper level, it was probably positioned
perpendicular to the platform. In contrast to the 15th Dynasty palace,
the North Palace had its long, inner casemate chambers intentionally illed
in with earth and gravel, as there are no traces indicating that they were
originally used as storerooms.
The next stage in the development of casemate palaces is demonstrated
by a citadel from area H of Avaris (Palace C) dating to the late Hyksos
period (Fig. 3: 1; Jánosi 1994, 28; Jánosi 1996, 97; bietak et al. 2001,
32-34, 48-51), and the South Palace of Deir el-ballas (Fig. 3: 2; Smith 1958,
158; Lacovara 1981, 121; Lacovara 1990, 5; Lacovara 2006, 189). both
buildings were solid structures completely erected on casemate foundation
platforms. They were the irst to adopt the most typical form of the style:
a high, rectangular foundation with cells of diverse size and shape,
N. Małecka-Drozd
152
Fig. 2. The North Palace in Deir el-ballas.
Redrawn and simpliied from Lacovara 1997, ig. 5
the layout of which generally corresponded to the arrangement of the rooms
on the upper level. The most characteristic feature of the South Palace
was a single courtyard, which was situated in front of part of the platform
on a lower level than the remaining rooms. The same feature can be
assumed to have existed in the case of the Hyksos citadel. In both buildings,
the chambers were illed in with earth to create a solid block foundation.
Unfortunately, no traces of a ramp or staircase leading to the upper level has
been found. broad stairs were only discovered in the South Palace between
a lower courtyard and the rooms arranged on the upper loor. The most
important aspect of this stage in development is that the fully axial layout
was irst adopted at this time.
The last stage in the evolution of palaces erected on casemate platforms
in the middle of the 2nd millennium bC can be witnessed in three structures
from area H of Avaris. Palace F (Jánosi 1994, 30-31; Jánosi 1996, 96-98;
Notes on the origin of casemate foundation platforms...
153
Fig. 3. 1 – The late Hyksos citadel from area H/III in Avaris.
Redrawn and simpliied from bietak 2010, ig. 25;
2 – The South Palace in Deir el-ballas. Redrawn from Smith 1958, ig. 51
bietak et al. 2001, 40; bietak 2005, 15; bietak and Forstner-Müller 2005,
73), Palace G (bietak et al. 2001, 75-85; bietak and Forstner-Müller 2003,
44-45; bietak and Forstner-Müller 2005, 68-90) and Palace J (bietak et al.
2001, 85) all formed part of the residential area of New Kingdom rulers from
the early 18th Dynasty until the reign of Amenhotep II (Fig. 4). All of these
structures possessed solid, rectangular casemate platforms with casemate
ramps situated parallel to one of the shorter sides. The inner chambers
N. Małecka-Drozd
154
Fig. 4. The residential district from area H in Avaris.
Redrawn and simpliied from bietak 2010, ig. 28
of the foundations were diverse in size and shape, although mainly long
and narrow. However, as was the case with Citadel C, the layout of rooms
on the upper level could also be seen in the base. Of all the buildings, Palace F
stands out, because it is the densest construction and was later reconstructed
as a defensive citadel. Palace G, the most impressive and biggest,
is interesting from a structural point of view, as some of the inner
compartments of its platform were accessible from the ground. These rooms
were mainly located in the longer, southeastern side of the foundation
and they would have been used as bathrooms, diverse utility rooms and
staircases. There is no evidence of the usage of platform chambers in this way
in the other palaces of the area. Indeed, the only place with a slight similarity
to it is the irst palace from area F/II. Apart from the aspects mentioned
above, the newer palaces had a few other important features. For the irst
Notes on the origin of casemate foundation platforms...
155
time, the main courtyard (really large in the case of Palace G) was not
only located in front of the building, but also at the same level as the rest
of the rooms. Moreover, the fully axial layout of the palaces now possessed
a typically Egyptian arrangement of rooms (also recognisable to a certain
extent in Citadel C), with the residential quarters located in the back part
of the building (cf. badawy 1966a, 20-33; Arnold 1999; Koltsida 2007).
Finally, another kind of building constructed using the casemate
technique must also be mentioned. This is the Chapel of Queen Tetisheri
in Abydos (Fig. 5), built by the irst king of the 18th Dynasty, Ahmose
(Currely 1904, 35-35). These structures are signiicant due to the symmetrical
layout of their cells and their almost square plan, which is a forerunner
of much later casemate platforms of the 1st millennium bC. Similarly
to the earlier structures, the inner chambers were long, narrow and illed
in with earth. The Chapel of Queen Tetisheri is also the irst fully cult building
to have been built using casemate construction.
Fig. 5. The chapel of Queen Tetisheri in Abydos.
Redrawn and simpliied from Curelly 1904, pl. LI
N. Małecka-Drozd
156
External inluences?
One of the most crucial issues concerning early casemate structures
in Egypt is the question of their origin. Over the last several years,
a few hypotheses have been put forward. As they are relevant to this paper,
they will now be discussed in brief.
The most signiicant popular theory is that casemate foundation usage
in Egypt is of Levantine origin. M. bietak (1996, 68-70; 2010, 21-22),
the discoverer of the famous palaces of Avaris, has made mention of the Near
Eastern features of these structures and linked their appearance to the activity
of the Hyksos. In his opinion (bietak 2010, 21), the remains of the early
15th Dynasty palace in area F/II may be closely related to Syrian-type palaces
known from Ebla Q and Mari of the Middle bronze Age, as well as Alalakh
and Ugarit of the Late bronze Age. Features supporting this theory are
the palaces’ lack of a central axis, their compact layout and segmentation into
juxtaposed quarters, the number of storerooms they had and the existence
of towers jutting out of their façades.1 Furthermore, bietak (2010, 21) believes
that the casemate structure of both these and later palaces from Avaris area H
derives from casemate bastions from the fortiications of Middle bronze IIA
Ebla, Gezer and Hazor (for the description of these buildings see Kempinski
1992a, 132). Such features can be observed in all of these places and some
may have appeared due to the Asiatic origin of their Hyksos rulers.
Two structural aspects are of great interest, particularly in the case
of the earliest palace. Firstly, a staircase tower located to the southwest
of its courtyard (b), known as ‘Treppenhaus 2’, is extremely similar
to a tower found at Tel Gezer (Fig. 6). In addition, a ramp that runs partly
parallel to the complex (A) and completely parallel to a shorter side
of the platforms of Palaces F, G and J may well be related to gates on a bent
axis known from Levantine cities (cf. Megiddo: Kempinski 1992a, 133,
ig. 15). This feature is more pronounced than the generally perpendicular
ramps of Egyptian architecture (cf. pyramid complexes of the Old and
Middle Kingdoms: badawy 1954, 123-156; badawy 1966b, 96-121).
It is also necessary, however, to highlight features that are not
necessarily indicative of Asian origin. Firstly, structural segmentation can
Due to limited space, it is not possible to present a complete description of Levantine
architecture in the Middle and Late bronze Ages. The most basic, complete data is provided
by: Kempinski and Reich (eds) 1992 (in particular Oren 1992; Kempinski 1992a) and Śliwa
1997, 136-179. There is no satisfying study which compares the speciics of Egyptian and
Near Eastern architectural elements. For a more general overview, the most important
publication is badawy 1966b.
1
Notes on the origin of casemate foundation platforms...
157
Fig. 6. Fragment of the city fortiications of Tel Gezer.
Redrawn and simpliied from Kempinski 1992b, ig. 13
only be observed in the case of the earliest palace, the one from area F/II
in Avaris and, to a certain extent, the North Palace in Deir el-ballas. The South
Palace and the palace from area H in Avaris are both examples of developed
casemate architecture and already have its typical axial structure. After
the initial mixed patterns of the early Hyksos palace, the later North Palace
of Deir el-ballas features a more symmetrical layout, which is a development
towards the block axial structures of later buildings. Typically Egyptian
elements begin to become visible in the early 15th Dynasty palace. These can
be seen in extensive warehouse complexes (A), (E) and (G), which contain
the long, vaulted chambers that are found in Egyptian architecture from
the Predynastic period onwards. Similar storerooms have been discovered
in a residential complex in buto (Zierman 2002, 479; Hartung 2008, 12091213) and next to Khephren’s pyramid in Giza (Hölscher 1912, blatt II).
The relationship between storerooms and oicial architecture (such as
palaces and fortresses) has been demonstrated for the Middle Kingdom
by b. J. Kemp (1986), who linked large, granary buildings known from
a Nubian fortress and the large houses of Kahun with administrative functions.
As a result, there is no reason to link them to storeroom areas from Levantine
palaces such as Qatna (bietak 2010, 21), since analogous examples are
known in Egyptian architecture. Finally, the previously mentioned axial
layout of most palaces (and also the Chapel of Tetisheri) with private quarters
located in the back part of the buildings indicates that casemate architecture
was quickly integrated into local architectural customs.
A hypothesis established by P. Lacovara (1983, 159; 2006, 192193) links the usage of casemate techniques in Egypt with the evolution
158
N. Małecka-Drozd
of the great tumuli of Kerma. The main examples used to support this
theory are tumuli K III (Fig. 7) and K X, which possess long, narrow inner
casemates covered by brick paving (cf. Lacovara 2006, ig. 5). Lacovara links
these constructions with analogous long, narrow chambers in the platform
of the North Palace of Deir el-ballas. Although this seems to be a very
attractive hypothesis, it does not prove any true connection between Nubian
and Egyptian construction techniques. It is far more likely that the long, inner
compartments of the great tumuli were created with the aim of structural
strengthening and to protect against any decay of the artiicial mound.
In addition, casemate chambers from Egypt and the Near East were a part
of the foundation of the building; the cells inside the Kerma tumuli did not
play this role. various types of tumulus inner construction are known from
diferent cultures of the world, sometimes quite elaborate and sometimes
quite similar to Nubian examples (cf. kurgan of Arzan near Tuva, southern
Fig. 7. Tumulus K III from Kerma. Redrawn and simpliied from Trigger 1976, ig. 28
Notes on the origin of casemate foundation platforms...
159
Siberia: Gryaznov 1980; Kuilman 2011, 465-467). There is therefore
no cause to link the discussed chambers with Egyptian foundation techniques.
Furthermore, the dating of these structures to the 2nd Intermediate period
(Trigger 1976, 89-93), a time when the evolution of Egyptian casemate
buildings can already be seen to be in progress, makes such origins seem
improbable.
Evidence for casemate foundation platforms being of Egyptian
origin
The theory that casemate techniques were borrowed from abroad appears
tempting because of the regularity with which this form of construction was
used by the various cultures of the eastern Mediterranean. Nevertheless,
it should not be forgotten that diferences existed in the way the various
architectural traditions employed them, one of the most important being
the building material used. Whereas Levantine casemate structures
of the Middle and Late bronze Ages were erected using bricks on a stone
foundation (Kempinski 1992b, 97-98), Egyptians built completely brick
buildings (Małecka-Drozd 2012; Małecka-Drozd 2013). Furthermore, apart
from smaller structures (such as defensive towers or city gates) from various
sites, there is no example of a proper casemate platform in a Near Eastern
building from the bronze Age (cf. Śliwa 1997, 136-179).
As evidence of the external origin of casemate architecture in Egypt
is not convincing, there must therefore be data that suggests that this
structural form is a local creation. The irst example of such a casemate
foundation could perhaps come from Tell el-Farkha’s early Naqadian
Residence (Ciałowicz and Jucha 2003, 32), but research has not been able
to conirm this interpretation. P. Lacovara (1983, 159) previously cited
the Middle Kingdom fort at Abu Rawash as an example, but this argument
fell apart when the structure was dated to the Late period (Spencer 1979,
107). In any case, there are certain factors that suggest the local provenance
of casemate foundations, many connected with the development of funerary
architecture.
The Egyptians had signiicant knowledge of foundation techniques,
the qualities of building materials and construction methods (Spencer 1979;
Clarke and Engelbach 1990; Arnold 1991; Aston et al. 2000; Kemp 2000).
From the very beginning, the most important building material was soil.
This was initially used as shapeless lumps of mud, before it was made
into regular, rectangular bricks. There were two main types of brick,
160
N. Małecka-Drozd
mud and sand, the speciic properties of which determined the manner
of their use. bricks with a high sand content were very strong in a dry
environment but susceptible to erosion by water. These were therefore
favoured when strengthening particular elements of a structure (cf. Spencer
1979, 55; bietak and Forstner-Müller 2006, 68). Conversely, mudbricks
(which contained more clay) were weaker but more resistant to moisture.
For this reason, mudbricks were most readily used underground to create
a building’s foundations (Arnold 1991, 114). The local population started
to line their burial pits with mudbricks as early as the Predynastic period,
thus dividing the space into several chambers (Ciałowicz 1999, 237f.).
It can only be assumed that one of the reasons for the development of such
a practice was the desire to protect the remains from the seepage of ground
moisture (cf. Pisarczyk 2001, 16), as well as to create a more standardised
form of desert grave. At irst glance, a striking resemblance can be noted
between casemate foundation platforms and a speciically Egyptian type
of tomb, the mastaba. The peripheral walls of the Egyptian construction
enclosed a space divided into cells by inner walls. Since both casemate
foundations and mastabas in all probability originated in the Nile Delta
(Małecka-Drozd 2012, 80-90; Małecka-Drozd 2013, 89-101), the similarity
mentioned above merits further investigation. The earliest mastaba burial
was discovered at the Tell el-Farkha cemetery and dates to the Naqada
IIIA2/b1 period (Ciałowicz and Dębowska-Ludwin 2013, 154-156). Despite
the fact that we cannot be completely sure that the structure was used
as a grave, there seems to be no other convincing explanation of its purpose.
The mastaba’s solid brick structure (Fig. 8), with thick outer walls and
inner chambers intentionally illed in with earth, mud and bricks, make
it a plausible forerunner to casemate foundations.
The growth of popularity in mastaba tombs in Egypt during the Archaic
period (Fig. 9) is also signiicant. Its classic, most developed form is known
from a few necropoleis, most notably those of Saqqara (Emery 1949;
Emery 1954; Emery 1958) and Tarkhan (Wainwright 1913; Petrie 1914).
In this form, the wider outer walls enclose a rectangular space, which is then
divided into cells by thinner ones. These are not bound together, which was
common practice in both tombs and casemate foundations. Certain chambers
were used as storerooms, whilst the rest were illed in with earth, sand
or gravel. A good example of this practice is a reconstruction of Mastaba
3503 from Saqqara (Emery 1954, pl. 38), in which the upper part
of the structure (located above the storerooms) is illed in with earth and
rubble. From the Old Kingdom onwards, mastaba tombs became more
Notes on the origin of casemate foundation platforms...
Fig. 8. Mastaba from cemetery of Tell el-Farkha.
Redrawn from Ciałowicz and Dębowska-Ludwin 2013, ig. 1
Fig. 9. Mastaba no. 3504 from Saqqara, 1st Dynasty.
Redrawn and simpliied from Ciałowicz 1999, il. 145
161
N. Małecka-Drozd
162
simpliied, with a number of inner compartments being replaced by a block
structure with a chapel and shaft to the underground burial chamber
(cf. badawy 1954, 157-173).
Another element of Egyptian architecture that could have inluenced
the emergence of the casemate structure is that of its foundations, in particular
its foundation platforms. Although it is questionable as to whether structures
such as the artiicial mound surrounded by a retaining wall in Hierakonpolis
(Quibell and Green 1902, pl. LXXII) can be deemed a form of foundation
platform, it remains an important example of the Egyptian temple building
tradition. Temples erected on this kind of foundation are attested from
the Old Kingdom onwards. One of the better known and oldest is the stone
platform under the upper temple of Mycerinus at Giza (Reisner 1931,
73-74). As for brick foundations of the type, the huge platform under
the temple of banebjed in Mendes is a notable example. This structure had
a depth of 50cm and rose to two metres above ground level. As a publication
on the feature has not yet appeared, we do not know the exact details
of the platform’s construction, but it has been assumed that it may cover
remains of temples from earlier periods (Redford 2010, 38-40). During
the second part of the Old Kingdom, temples were also built on foundation
platforms. Examples come in the form of solar temples such as the one raised
by Userkaf in Abusir (Ricke 1954, 312-314), as well as mortuary temples
such as the valley temple of Niuserre (borchardt 1907). In the Middle
Kingdom, platform foundations with perpendicular causeways continued
to be built. As we do not know of any valley temples from pyramid complexes
of the 12th Dynasty, we can only assume that their construction was similar
to those of the Old Kingdom. In any case, certain other examples indicate
that the erection of ediices using a platform as a structural element was
popular at this time (cf. mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II in Deir el-bahari:
badawy 1966a, 53-59). Platform type foundations are certainly present
in at least a few temples, such as the mortuary temple of Sesostris III
at Abydos (Randall-MacIver and Mace 1902, 57-60; badawy 1966a, ig. 25)
and the White Chapel of Senusret I at Karnak (Chevrier and Lacau 1956).
Why casemate architecture?
It is clear that structures and construction techniques that could have
inluenced the emergence of casemate foundation platforms existed in Egypt
centuries before Hyksos domination in the 2nd Intermediate period. There
are also tumuli older than Nubian ones in Kerma. At least some of these
Notes on the origin of casemate foundation platforms...
163
could have come into being in similar conditions to the casemate platform.
One recent hypothesis has suggested that the high Nile loods of the middle
of the 2nd millennium bC had an impact on the emergence of the casemate
platform (Szafrański 2003) and this has also been connected to a similar
situation in the Late period (Małecka-Drozd 2012; Małecka-Drozd 2013),
as well as other factors.
There are several periods in the history of the Egyptian civilization
in which the activity of the Nile greatly increased and lood levels rose.
The irst time such a situation has been noted was at the turn of the 4th and
3rd millennia bC (butzer 1976, 28; Said 1993, 143-149), when the irst
mastabas emerged. This was also the time when Egyptian theology and
mythology developed, with the legendary primeval mound as one of its most
important elements (Ricke 1935). The loods were also one of the reasons
for the construction of temples on artiicially elevated hills or platforms,
even if they were not directly threatened by water. During the Old Kingdom,
a gradual drying up of the climate and a resultant decrease in lood levels
occurred, which led to disaster in the 1st Intermediate period (bell 1971;
Said 1993, 138-142). Changes in mastaba construction, which involved
a notable simpliication of the structure and a departure from the complicated
quasi-casemate technique, can be attributed to this alteration in the climate.
The next period of increased humidity and higher Nile loods occurred during
the Middle Kingdom and the 2nd Intermediate period (bell 1975, 226-247;
Said 1993, 143-149) and can be dated to c. 1850-1500 bC (Szafrański
2003, 211). This is attested by graiti from a Nubian fortress from the reign
of Amenemhat III, as well as by archaeological evidence, such as the layers
of mud above Middle Kingdom settlements in Abu Ghalib (Larsen 1936, 46,
48f) and Kom Rabia (Szafrański 2003, 211).
This brief insight into the climatic history of Egypt has given us some
interesting results. Since the connection between casemate platforms and
high loods seems to be convincing, the temptation exists to create a similar
link between the high humidity of the Neolithic Wet Phase (bell 1971,
3-6) and the invention of complicated mudbrick tombs and their mastaba
superstructures. The properties of the material used also played an important
role in funerary architecture and the construction of casemate foundations
(Małecka-Drozd 2012, 73-74). When exposed to moisture, the shear and
compression degrees of mudbrick walls increase (cf. above; Pisarczyk
2001, 16) and minerals present in the soil toughen the structure (Spencer
1979, 116-117). Sand mixed with earth and rubble was therefore used to ill
the inner compartments of both mastabas and casemate foundations to give
N. Małecka-Drozd
164
more stability to the structure, since the shear and compression degrees
of this mixture are not afected by moisture (Pisarczyk 2001, 16). It also
does not become deformed by the weight of the structure it is supporting
and is therefore a great stabiliser during earthquakes (Arnold 1991, 114).
It should come as no surprise that the Egyptians possessed this knowledge
and that they were able to make use of it after a period of trial and error
(cf. Szafrański 2003, 213-217; Małecka-Drozd 2012, 80-90).
The emergence of casemate foundation platforms in the 2nd
Intermediate period can therefore be seen as the result of the application
of earlier knowledge from domestic (or residential) architecture. It could
also be partly down to a necessary shifting of settlements to more vulnerable
areas as a result of population growth. As K. W. butzer (1976, tab. 4)
has noted, the population of Egypt more than doubled between 3000 and 1800
bC, with a threefold increase occurring in the Nile Delta. Recent research
conducted has conirmed these calculations. In ancient Avaris, the size
of the settlement rose from 75ha at the end of the Middle Kingdom to 250ha
in the 2nd Intermediate period (bietak 2010, 11-12). Area H and its vast
residential complex on the banks of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile (dating
to the late Hyksos and early 18th Dynasty periods) was also inhabited
at this time (cf. bietak 2010, ig. 9a-d). It should be noted here that the fully
developed form of casemate foundation platform was not erected before
the shifting of the residential, royal district to area H, which would
presumably have occurred when ground water levels were higher.
conclusion
Over the course of this paper, I have presented various aspects
of Egyptian casemate structures from the 2nd millennium bC and discussed
their possible origin. It has been noted that there are strong indications
that the form originated locally, but there is one more issue that must be
addressed.
The early Hyksos palace from area F/II of Avaris can be seen as the one
with the most obvious links to Near Eastern architecture due to its bastion
and layout segmentation. Here, some casemate chambers consisting
of compartments situated along one courtyard (b) created a thicker
palace wall, a trait which directly corresponds to Levantine constructions
(cf. Kempinski 1992a; Oren 1992). However, it is not a true example
of a building erected on a foundation platform, whether it be casemate or
not. At least some of the compartments considered to be casemate were illed
Notes on the origin of casemate foundation platforms...
165
in during a later phase of exploitation of the building. It can be assumed that
this must have been done for a reason, perhaps out of the desire to protect
the complex of storerooms from moisture or other typical threats. In their
classic form, casemate foundations from the end of the 2nd Intermediate
period and the New Kingdom (in both Avaris and Deir el-ballas)
no longer possess Asiatic features (with the exception of the parallel ramp).
From the New Kingdom onwards, an increasing number of local traits
derived from the earlier architecture of the region, become visible.
Taking all this into account, it seems probable that casemate foundation
platforms are simply the result of the local evolution of construction
techniques. All the characteristic features of casemate platforms had
been known in Egyptian architecture centuries beforehand. These include
the knowledge of the properties of building materials (mudbrick and sand)
and their reaction to contact with water and humidity, block structures divided
by inner walls into several compartments, the strengthening of the structure
by illing in its interior with earth and rubble and the raising of important
ediices using artiicial hills and foundation platforms. Any Near Eastern
features present in casemate palaces from the Hyksos period therefore
seem to be a rather supericial imitation of techniques developed elsewhere.
They were relatively quickly adapted to incorporate the advantages
of Egyptian construction techniques more suited to the alluvial conditions
of the Nile Delta.
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ricke H. 1935. Der hohe Sand in Heliopolis. ZÄS 71, 107-111.
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Krakow.
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Natalia Małecka-Drozd
c/o Institute of Archaeology
Jagiellonian University
nbmalecka@gmail.com
S T U D I E S I N A N C I E N T A RT A N D C I v I L I Z AT I O N 18
Kraków 2014
Johannes Stefan G. Auenmüller
berlin/bonn
THE LOCATION OF NEW kINGdOM
ELITE TOMbS – SPACE, PLACE
ANd SIGNIFICANCE1
Abstract: This paper deals with the signiicance of provincial
New Kingdom elite tomb location. It aims to describe a key element
of the relationship between the elite and the spatial distribution of their
archaeological evidence in terms of ‘territoriality’. It focuses especially
on the tomb, the pivotal component of the elite’s monumental display.
A unique perspective is adopted, derived from both the sociology of space
and cultural anthropology. The theoretical background of ‘territoriality’ and
its wide range of applications are outlined irstly with a short review of key
deinitions. The paper’s focus then shifts to the domain of funerary archaeology
by examining the location of tombs and its signiicance. The factors afecting
location are discussed from a prosopographical perspective and contrasted
with statements from so-called (auto-)biographical self-presentations.
Both inscriptional and prosopographical data is the key to understand
the underlying considerations for tomb location.
1
This paper is based on my PhD-dissertation, Die Territorialität der Ägyptischen
Elite(n) des Neuen Reiches, supervised by Prof. Dr. Stephan J. Seidlmayer and funded
by the berlin Cluster of Excellence TOPOI – The Formation and Transformation of Space
and Knowledge in Ancient Civilizations. I wish to thank both for their scientiic and inancial
support respectively. I also want to thank the organizers of the conference, Mariusz A.
Jucha, Joanna Dębowska-Ludwin and Piotr Kołodziejczyk, for giving me the opportunity
to put these thoughts up for discussion in Krakow. Lastly, I owe special thanks to Maarten
Horn, Mat Dalton and the editors for checking my English and many useful comments
and suggestions. The paper represents research in 2012, no further bibliographical additions
or contentual emendations have been made since its initial writing.
DOI: 10.12797/SAAC.18.2014.18.11
J. S. G. Auenmüller
172
Keywords: Territoriality; space and identity; (auto-)biographical texts;
New Kingdom elite prosopography; home and geographical provenance;
proximity to the king; administrative relationships
Introduction: starting points and issues
A wide-ranging Egyptological discussion exists about necropoleis
of the New Kingdom and their internal topographical and distributional
structure. This discussion also concerns the cultural meaning of necropolis
structures and their sociological interpretation. This issue applies to the large
and well-known necropoleis of the royal and capital cities Thebes, Memphis
and Tell el-Amarna (e.g. Engelmann-von Carnap 1995; Engelmann-von
Carnap 1999; Raven 2000; Arp 2012), as well as to those of a more provincial
character (e.g. Wada 2007; for a summary of both see Richards 2005, 6974, with literature). The architectural size and the layout of single tombs,
their funerary furniture and their location in relation to other sepulchres can
be taken into account to describe the social status of their owners. Tombs
are therefore considered by scholars to be signiicant monuments that give
us an idea of the composition of ancient Egyptian society (cf. Dodson and
Ikram 2008, 23-30).
The present paper aims to highlight a phenomenon discussed
in Egyptology, that has, however, not yet received the attention it warrants.
It concerns the ideological signiicance of the location chosen for New
Kingdom elite tombs. In this respect, cemeteries belonging to large royal
and capital cities are just as telling as provincial cemeteries such as Sedment,
El-Khawaled, Asyut, El-Mashayikh, Zawyet Sultan and Er-Rizeiqat,
to name but a few. The question underlying this investigation in both contexts
concerns what kind of spatial and social relations were indicated by a tomb’s
location. As this inquiry will be dealt with using the concept of ‘territoriality’,
issues pertaining to social origin and geographical provenance, as well as
functional duties and the local social embeddedness of the tomb owners
come to mind.
Are Egyptian elite tombs and their location useful in gaining an insight
into the spatial origins of its owners? The provincial tomb of a member
of the courtly elite located in one of the aforementioned provincial burial
grounds might serve as a direct territorial marker indicating the geographical
origin of its owner. Wolfram Grajetzki (2003, 89) therefore asks in this
context: ‘[W]hy were these oicials buried in these particular places?’ and
gives the immediate answer, that ‘the easiest explanation’ is that they were
The location of New Kingdom elite tombs...
173
all buried where they were born. This situation should not merely be
considered as ‘the easiest explanation’. In fact, it should be regarded
as the only feasible one, as we will see in the following paragraphs.
setting the terms: territoriality
As we will use ‘territoriality’ as the central explanatory concept,
it is imperative that we make some brief deinitions of the term as well as
the approach used here available to the reader. The conceptual background
of the term was primarily established by ethologists studying animal
behaviour (cf. burt 1943; Martin 1972; Malmberg 1980, 27-53) and was
then adopted by ethnologists, cultural anthropologists and sociologists, who
each adjusted it to their own particular scientiic perspectives (cf. Carpenter
1961; Lyman and Scott 1967; Dyson-Hudson and Smith 1978; Cashdan
1983). Some of these scholars understood territoriality as an instinctual
routine and adapted it to the human sphere by stating (from a now refuted
biologistic perspective on territorial behaviour) that ‘[t]he study of human
territoriality is the study of human behaviour’ (Schelen and Ashcraft 1976,
4). A more recent and comprehensive examination of territoriality is provided
by Robert D. Sack (1983, 55; see also 1986). He especially takes the cultural
embeddedness of human behaviour into account: ‘Human Territoriality
is a means of afecting (enhancing or impeding) interaction and extends
the particulars of action by contact. Territoriality is deined [...]
as the attempt to afect, inluence, or control actions, interactions, or access
by asserting and attempting to enforce control over a speciic geographic
area’. This quote demonstrates a general scholarly tendency to focus
on the term’s aspect of control of geographic space, which is also employed
in the most widespread use of ‘territoriality’ in politics. In this sense,
it describes the territorial behaviour of states in terms of control and defence
of their national territory and its people (cf. Forsberg 1996; Agnew 2005;
vollard 2009).
Other deinitions focus more on the psychological aspects
of territoriality and try to describe actual or imagined relationships between
people and space. This is what psychologists call the ‘“emotional agenda”
of territoriality’ (Albert 2001, 6). Territoriality as ‘an extremely widespread
phenomenon […] operative in our largest-scale endeavours, war and
global trade, as well as in many of our smallest, such as claiming our seats
at the dinner table’ (Giford 1997, 136) is also deined as ‘a self/other
boundary regulation mechanism that involves personalization of or marking
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J. S. G. Auenmüller
of a place or object and communication that it is “owned” by a person or group.
Personalisation and ownership are designed to regulate social interaction
and help satisfy various social and physical motives’ (Altmann 1975,
107). In this functionalistic approach, the matter of individual ownership
of socially appropriated (i.e. territorialised) places and objects as well as
the personalisation of space to satisfy social and physical needs are central.
Territoriality is also discussed within the psychoanalytical paradigm
as a ‘perspective on unconscious individual and social processes’, that
provides ‘important explanatory aspects for the perception of the spatial
environment, but also for the spatial and geographical behaviour of human
groups’ (transl. by the author from Jüngst 2000, 14). The ‘emotional agenda’
of territoriality comes also into play for the development of personal
and collective identities. Since the psychological attachment of people
to space(s) and places difers signiicantly within cultures, the biologistic
approach can be challenged by the fact that ‘the role of territoriality
in deining collective identities is not a natural given and that it can change’
(Albert 2001, 6). Territoriality only becomes a feature of identity when
territory and space are perceived as emic cultural codes to generate identity.
From this perspective, territoriality can thus be described as a ‘major anchor
of identity’ (Forsberg 1996, 361-362).
Territoriality is also used as a conceptual framework to focus
on the relationship between space and human behaviour by Egyptologists,
who generally understand it in its broadest political sense. Michael Hofman
(1980, 325), for instance, discusses the political territoriality of the early
state and the deinition of its borders, whilst Silvia Lupo (2007a; 2007b)
focuses on the territorial strategy of the Old Kingdom state in establishing
pyramid towns and royal necropoleis to appropriate geographic space.
In a recent presentation at the Current Research in Egyptology conference
in birmingham, Marina Wilding brown (CRE 13, Abstracts, 8-9) also used
the term when referring to ancient Egyptian graiti that served as markers
of territorial demarcation. However, for the purpose of this paper it is
necessary to move the focus of the term away from the political aspects
of territorial control towards the concept of spatial identity, as expressed
in individual territorial behaviour. This is essential for this paper, because
the term will be used from a sociological and psychological perspective
by focusing on individuals or groups of people and all the diferent kinds
of spatial relationships they have or portray. based on the relational
conceptualisation of Claude Rafestin (1984), Francesco Klauser (2008,
7; 2010) describes territoriality as ‘the whole myriad of conscious
The location of New Kingdom elite tombs...
175
and unconscious engagements and interrelations between individual
or collective social actors and space, which are present in the constitution
of territorial claims, disputes and geographically anchored identities’.
Territoriality can thus be understood as an analytical term used to describe
many types of human relationships with space and spatial phenomena.
In the case of the New Kingdom elite, these relations are mediated
or expressed by the diferent monuments that they erected. The following
observations are therefore based on prosopographical and archaeological
records of members of the New Kingdom elite. As far as the individual and
prosopographical level of territoriality is concerned, we may identify ive
main conceptual dimensions, which together form a structure of mutually
complementary aspects. As such, territoriality can be understood (at least
for our understanding of the archaeological evidence of the Egyptian elite)
as an anthropological category constituted by a matrix of the following ive
dimensions:
The ‘archaeological-geographical dimension’ refers to all the monuments
of the elite distributed throughout Egypt and all its political spheres
of inluence. When focusing on the monuments of a single person
(e.g. the viceroy of Nubia Setau under Ramesses II), it is possible to describe
his radius of action by mapping all his records and attestations (see Raedler
2003). The ‘praxeological dimension’ embeds those archeologically and
geographically distributed records into contexts of activities and conduct.
A rock inscription at Aswan can thus be seen as a marker of presence
at a particular spot where speciic tasks were undertaken or certain activities
were participated in (see Seidlmayer 1999 and 2003). The ‘sociological
dimension’ describes the social as well as functional diferentiation
of people in relation to each other and the efect of these relationships and
functions on the range of travel and the activities performed by the elite.
by way of example, the extremely mobile viziers may be contrasted with
the comparatively stationary mayors of Egyptian towns. The Theban mayors
under the vizier PA-sr (Sethi I-Ramesses II), whose own monumental
displays range from Nubia to the Nile Delta (see Raedler 2004, 309-354,
ig. 5), are only known from monuments in Thebes itself.2 The ‘psychological2
The mayors of eastern Thebes were Jmn-m-HAb (TT A8: Manniche 1988, 47-49; Kruck
2012, 89-92), Nfr-mnw (TT 184: Kitchen 1980, 162,7-163,7; Fábián 1997; Fábián 2005),
PA-sr (Kitchen 1980, 157,12-161,3; mentioned in TT 183: Kitchen 1980, 182,11, 183,3
and 8, 185,2-3, 185,12; the funerary cone Nr. 161 [Davies and Macadam 1957, Nr. 161;
KRI Iv, 529,11] possibly belongs to him) and 1Aw-nfr (TT 385: Kitchen 1980, 163,8-164,5;
mentioned in TT 183: Kitchen 1980, 183,10, 184,15-16); see also Jmn-Htp (Schneider 1977,
37, cat.-nos 3.1.1.9 and 3.1.1.10, igs 10 and 85). For the mayor of western Thebes Ra-ms
J. S. G. Auenmüller
176
cognitive’ dimension represents the attitude of the Egyptians towards
space and spatial entities and incorporates the parameters of the Egyptian
perception of space portrayed by the previously mentioned dimensions,
as well as the surviving textual records. Finally, the ‘ideological dimension’
or the ‘dimension of cultural knowledge’ interconnects socio-cultural facts
with their reasons and motives in forming a comprehensive and meaningful
framework for culturally appropriate behaviour in space.
Space, place and signiicance: tomb location
Following this theoretical introduction, we return to the question
of the signiicance of elite tomb location. Tombs are of paramount
archaeological and sociological importance. In Egyptology, they are
actually labelled as deining monuments of the Egyptian civilisation
(e.g. Dodson and Ikram 2008, 8). They constitute monuments which embody
aspects of the ive territorial dimensions in various ways. The tomb can be
regarded as a communicative medium that displays status, wealth, identity,
gender, personality, social and family relationships, as well as religious
ailiation. This all comes with a good deal of conspicuous consumption
epitomising the elite’s striving for prestige (cf. Dodson and Ikram
2008; see also Richards 2005, 49-69). The tomb is also a social product
of an individual or community, and, in what seems to have been an exclusively
elite phenomenon, was planned and built during the lifetime of its owner.
As regards its location, ideological considerations were taken into account
that were neither random nor fortuitous, but rooted rather in culturally
signiicant meaning.
According to Jan Assmann, the Egyptian tomb ultimately represents
‘the crucial focus of belonging in Egypt’ (transl. by the author from Assmann
2000, 229). What, therefore, can the location of a tomb tell us about its owner
from a territorial perspective? What does the choice of a certain person
to be buried at this or that necropolis imply? What factors of space and
place led to this choice? All these questions do not refer to the signiicance
of the tomb’s location within a given necropolis, but instead to the location
of the chosen necropolis itself in connection with the administrative function,
social status and supposed geographic provenance of the tomb’s owner.
As far as the Old and Middle Kingdoms are concerned, research has been
undertaken on the location and distribution of elite rock-cut and mastaba
tombs representing various metiers of the nationwide elite (cf. Fisher
see Kitchen 1980, 161,4-162,6, 160,8 and Kitchen 1979, 802,8.
The location of New Kingdom elite tombs...
177
1954; Franke 1991, esp. 63-65; Kanawati 2004; Dodson and Ikram 2008,
27; Grajetzki 2009, 106-121, 152). In view of individual decisions versus
the deliberate policy of the Egyptian state, i.e. the king, in choosing
or assigning a spot for an oicial’s tomb, a certain tension can be discerned
between a location in the royal city and the provinces in most cases. This
issue can generally be described as a friction between two opposing concepts.
On the one hand, there is the social and functional proximity of the elite
member to the ruling king, which is expressed by the geographic proximity
of the tomb to the royal residence and/or the royal tomb. On the other hand,
there is the social and functional relationship of the elite member with his
own personal, oicial and local environment, which also inds an expression
in tomb location. Naguib Kanawati states that ‘oicials usually built their
tombs where they served’, but that there was also the ‘traditional desire
of the Egyptian to be buried near other members of his family’ (Kanawati 2004,
51). This is often described as a prevailing provincial phenomenon (Dodson
and Ikram 2008, 27). In the case of oicials serving at an administrative
centre near the king whose families also resided in the residence or capital
city, these two normally conlicting relationships coincide. In the case
of New Kingdom functionaries of the royal court whose tombs were
not situated at Thebes, Saqqara or Tell el-Amarna, other ideological
considerations and relationships must have been taken into account.
Regarding the New Kingdom, investigations have been carried out with
the aim of determining the nature of the Egyptian capital cities through
prosopographical research based on the tomb owners of their necropoleis.
Thebes has thus been classiied as a sacerdotal centre, Amarna as a religious
capital and Memphis as the administrative centre throughout the 18th
dynasty until the founding of the Delta capital Pi-Ramesse (Martin 2000,
99-120). Geofrey T. Martin (2000, 119) comments on the desire of the elite
to be buried at Thebes by stating that the ‘presence of the New Kingdom
royal cemeteries [...] was no doubt a powerful magnet for “the great and
the good” of those days. Personal choice of a burial place must also have
played a part’. Maarten J. Raven’s (2000, 135) remarks on the history
of the occupation of the Saqqara necropolis, its environs in the New
Kingdom and the distribution of the tombs conclude with the following
statement: ‘All this shows that the vicinity of the royal residence was not
the only factor for deciding the importance of the Saqqara necropolis’. Over
the course of his study, he discusses several modi of associative patterns
relating to these tombs and their owners. At Saqqara, mechanisms such
as professional association, patterns of patronage, personal connections
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J. S. G. Auenmüller
and dynastic considerations seem to have existed (Raven 2000, 136-138).
Religious reasons for Saqqara’s prominence are also advanced by scholars.
They derived from socio-cultural fractures caused by the Amarna period that
led in turn to an increase in the signiicance of the Memphite god PtahSokar-Osiris, who became the dominant igure of the funerary cult (van Dijk
1988, 40-44).
The individual territorial relationship between the tomb owner and his
place of burial (as established and marked by the sepulchre itself) does not,
however, seem to have been speciically considered in existing studies.
Yet the sepulchre represents a part of the spatial identity of the tomb owner.
Using Tell el-Amarna, a New Kingdom elite necropolis par excellence,
as a contrastive set (cf. Davies 1903-1908), it can be noted that tomb
location depended solely upon an individual’s proximity to the king
as well as upon associations with the administrative and religious
apparatus. There are no implications of geographic provenance mirrored
by theAmarna tombs. Indeed, the only aspect considered in theAmarna example
is the prosopographical composition of a residence necropolis in a speciic
time period under speciic ideological circumstances. However, it could be
argued that Amarna represents a signiicant case that is, at least structurally,
comparable to Saqqara. Amarna also mirrors the concept of Western Thebes
as a royal and elite necropolis to a certain degree. The Amarna tomb owners
were part of the highest social stratum of the city and were, to varying
degrees, integral members of its court. Since all the sarcophagus chambers
of the Amarna rock-cut elite tombs were left uninished (Arp 2012, 155),
it seems that no members of the elite of Akhet-Aten were actually buried
there.
Nevertheless, the underlying factors prompting elite tomb construction
in Amarna can be deduced. First of all, there was the functional relationship
of the oicial with governmental activities and the court of Amarna. Other
factors included the courtiers’ social and spatial proximity to the ruler
and his tomb, as well as their standing in the kings’ favour (cf. Guksch
1994), plus the prospect that both the families of Akhet-Aten’s elite and
the newly founded city would continue to exist here for generations to come.
The ruler was considered the main focal point of social standing and
therefore the personal relationship of a member of the elite to the king deined
their personal status to a large extent. This position was often displayed
in the context of the gold of honor scene in the rock-cut tombs (binder
2008). The favour of the king Akhenaten was therefore essential in earning
the privilege of acquiring a tomb in the elite necropolis of Tell el-Amarna
(Arp 2012, 139).
The location of New Kingdom elite tombs...
179
As a contrast to the capital city of Amarna, we will now shortly
focus on a more localised and/or provincial milieu to investigate
a speciic group with characteristic territoriality. The people in question are
the so-called HA.tjw-a, ‘mayors’ or ‘governors’ of towns. The functional
agenda of these mayors focused on their local milieu and territory; thus their
sphere of activity was more or less restricted to their area of competence
(cf. Helck 1958, 194-245). An analysis of the social provenance of HA.tjw-a
known from the New Kingdom reveals that they tended to hail from
the local and/or provincial milieu which they administered, and that they
were also often descendants of former mayors (see Auenmüller, forthcoming,
731-740). However, most mayors of the capital cities and other important
towns like Thinis did not have this social background. This could perhaps
signify that a diferent recruitment policy was followed in these other
important places.
The two aspects of spatial relations mentioned above, origin and functional
duties, are in most cases demonstrated by the location of mayoral tombs
in local elite necropoleis. In fact, almost three quarters of archaeologically
veriiable mayoral tombs are situated in the elite cemetery of their city
(see Auenmüller 2011, 21-22). This is a noteworthy inding, since it underlines
the signiicance of the tomb and its location as an essential and permanent
expression of the spatial relation of a group of people to their place of oice
and/or origin. This is particularly evident in peripheral regions such as Nubia
and the bahariya oasis (for a New Kingdom mayor of bahariya and his tomb
see van Siclen III, 1981).
There are, however, exceptions to the rule (cf. Auenmüller 2011,
22-25). Some provincial mayors were buried in tombs within the Theban
necropolis.3 However, a Theban tomb was not just limited to provincial
These are 4bk-Htp b of Fayum (TT 63: Dziobek and Abdel Raziq 1990; A.II.-T. Iv.);
MnT.w-Hr-xpS=f of Qau El-Kebir (TT 20: Davies 1913, 1-19, pls 1-19; T. III.); Jnj-jtj=f
(TT 155: Säve-Söderbergh 1957, 11-21, pls 10-20; Hat./T. III.), Mnw (TT 109: Porter and
Moss 1985, 226-227; T. III.) and Jmn-Htp (TT A19: Manniche 1988, 52-53; A.II.-T. Iv.)
of Thinis, 4j of the ‘Northern Oasis‘ (bahariya) (TT NN in Dra Abu El-Naga: Kruck
2012, 126-127; Ushebti aus ‘Qurna’ CG 48119: Newberry 1957, 293-294; 18th Dynasty)
and lastly 9Hw.tj-ms of Esna (TT 32: Kákosy et al. 2004; Ra. II.). While Kákosy
(et al. 2004, 355-356) interprets his mayoral title as honoriic and describing a retirement
position, 9Hw.tj-ms is here included in the list. There are three other problematic cases:
björkmann (1974, 46-47) argues for TT 91 as the tomb of the mayor Nby of Sile (T. Iv.),
while Morris (2005, 174) considers his tomb to be at Tjaru (Tell Hebua) itself. The status
of 4n-nfrj (TT 99: Strudwick 2000; T. III.) as mayor of Koptos or Letopolis is not clear
due to the writing of the associated toponym (cf. Sethe 1906, 546,14-15). That he derives
from a provincial family from the eastern Delta does, however, seem to be ascertainable
3
180
J. S. G. Auenmüller
oicials either, since also mayors of the administrative capital Memphis
were buried there. These are Qn-Jmn RAkA (TT NN; T. III.) and Mn-xpr
(TT -81-; A. III.) (Geßler-Löhr 1997, 34-36, 51-56). As the link between
mayors and the elite necropoleis of their cities seems to have been a general
trend in their funerary archaeology, the question arises as to why some were
buried at Thebes.
Why did these people break the traditional bond between tomb and
place of oice or origin? One option to answer this question is to look
at prosopographical data to determine whether these people or their parents
originated in Thebes. If this were the case, the location of the tomb would
mark their own geographical provenance. In this regard, the location
of paternal tombs should also be taken into account as evidence. However,
only the father of Mnw of 4bk-Htp b, mayor of the Fayum, is known
to have had a tomb that once existed in Thebes. It is only known thanks
to a funerary cone (Davies and Macadam 1957, Nr. 499; Dziobek and Abdel
Raziq 1990, 81-82). Another variable to be considered is the functional
connection of these people to Theban institutions, temples, the king and
the state, which can be discerned from some of their titles. Qn-Jmn RAkA’
titles, for instance, suggest a connection to the cult of Amen, and 9Hw.tjms from Esna was High Stewart of Amen-Ra at Thebes (see Auenmüller
2011, 23, tab. 1). by reviewing the available evidence, most external mayors
with tombs in Thebes who also have known parentage, with the possible
exception of Nby of Sile (cf. björkman 1975, 43-51) and the two mayors
of Memphis Qn-Jmn RAkA and Mn-xpr (cf. Geßler-Löhr 1997, 34-35, 5156), can be labelled as provincials. This conirms that the Theban necropolis
in these cases served as a burial spot for people from elsewhere. They are thus
part of the assumed 5% of external functionaries buried in Thebes (Assmann
2000, 318, Fn. 468; but see Fitzenreiter 1995, 115). Some of these New
Kingdom mayors also represent a speciic chronological phase in the history
of the Theban necropolis, as Qn-Jmn RAkA (Memphis), 9Hw.tj (Nefrusi?),
MnT.w-Hr-xps=f (Qau El-Kebir), Jnj-jtj=f, Mnw (both Thinis) and 4n-nfrj
(Koptos [or Letopolis?]) are datable to Hatshepsut and Thutmosis III. This
was when Thebes irst came to boast the New Kingdom elite necropolis with
its nationwide gravitational appeal (Wohlfahrt 2005, 533).
The tombs we have just dealt with were sepulchres in capital city
from some of both his and his father's titles, as well as part of his biographical inscription
in TT 99 (Strudwick 2000, 243-244). Whether 9Hw.tj (TT 11: Porter and Moss 1985,
21-24; Davies and Macadam 1957, Nr. 257) was an actual mayor of Nefrusi is not certain,
but Kessler 1981, 144-145 argues for his position there.
The location of New Kingdom elite tombs...
181
necropoleis. However, elite tombs were also located in burial grounds far
distant from the capital cities. These not only belonged to local administrative
and religious staf such as mayors and local priests but also to administrators
of the central government. Some possessed titles that connected them
to local cults or oices, but their main functional titles clearly show that they
once belonged to the elite of the court, (the ‘Hofstaat’ or ‘Hofgesellschaft’
in Raedler’s terms [2006; 2012]), where they served and lived for
the main part of their career. High-ranking military generals and oicers
can also be included in this category of the courtly elite. Leaving the urban
cemeteries of New Kingdom Nubia and their prosopography aside (see
e.g. Aniba [Steindorf 1935], Soleb [Schif-Giorgini 1971], and Sai [MinaultGoult 1997]), such people can be found in provincial elite tombs in Nag’
El-bogga, Kom Ombo(?), Elkab, Er-Rizeiqat, El-Mashayikh, Awlad Azzaz,
El-Khawaled, Deir Rifeh, Asyut, Tuna El-Gebel, Zawiet Sultan, Sedment,
Heliopolis, Athribis, bubastis and Tell El-Maskhuta, to name only the best
known examples.4 In the majority of cases mentioned in this list, the most
4
This is a preliminary and incomplete list: jm.j-r'-pr-wr-n-pr-Hm.t-nsw Nxt-Mnw (Dehmît/
Nag' El-bogga, 20th Dynasty: Fakhry 1935; Herrmann 1936; Hofmann 2004, 115); wpw.
tj-nsw-r-xAs.t-nb.t wr-m-pr-nsw Nxt-Mnw (Kom Ombo, Ramesside: budka 2001, 243,
Kat.-Nr. 257); jm.j-r'-xtm.t JaH-ms PA-n-Nxb.t (Elkab Nr. 2, T. III.: Porter and Moss 1937,
176-177); jm.j-r'-pr-HD jm.j-r'-pr.wj-HD jm.j-r'-pr.wj-nbw %bk-ms (Er-Rizeiqat, A. III.:
Hayes 1939); jm.j-r'-pr sXA.w-nsw-mAa-n-nb-tA.wj Hr.j-sA.wtj-sXA.w-n-nb-tA.wj Jj-mj-sbA
(El-Mashayikh, 19th Dynasty/Merenptah: Ockinga and Al-Masry 1990, 33-60); jm.j-r'-mna.j
jtj-nTr-mr(.y)-nTr TA.y-xw-Hr-wnm.j-n-nsw 4n-nDm/jm.j-r'-mna.j 4n-qd (Awlad Azzaz, Tut.:
Ockinga 1997); jm.j-r'-pr-HD-n-nb-tA.wj jm.j-r'-mSa-wr-n-Hm=f TA.y-xw-Hr-wnm.j-n-nsw
4wtj (El-Khawaled, S. I.-Ra.II.: Chaban 1901; Lefebvre 1908; Kamal el-Din 2010); jm.j-r'mSa jm.j-r'-xAs.wt-rs.jt Hr.j-pD.t xrp-xAs.wt-m-2n.t-Hn-nfr sA-nsw 6wtw (Deir Rifeh, NR:
Griith 1889, pls 16-18; Montet 1936, 144-152); jm.j-r'-wab.w-n-4xm.t wr-swn.w sXA.wnsw-Hr.j-tp Jmn-Htp (Asyut, Har.-S. I.: Karig 1969); jm.j-r'-Snw.tj 4A-As.t II and jm.j-r'Snw.tj-n-Sma.w-mHw 4A-As.t III (Asyut, Ra. II.: Satzinger 1978; bohleke 1993, 324-341
and 356-368); wHm.w-tp.j-n-nswsXA.w-mSasXA.w-mSa-n-nb-tA.wjsXA.w-nfr.wsXA.w-nswmAa-mr.y=f 4nw (Tuna El-Gebel, A. III: bresciani 1981); jm.j-r'-jH.w-n-Jmn-Ra jm.j-r'-jH.wwr-n-Jmn-m-Sma.w-mH.w jm.j-r'-pr-wr jm.j-r'-Snw.tj-n-pr-Jmn jm.j-r'-kA.t-n-nb-tA.wj
sXA.w-nsw-n-nb-tA.wj 9Hw.tj-ms (Tuna El-Gebel, 19th Dynasty: Daressy 1916); jm.j-r'-prwr-m-pr-nswjm.j-r'-pr-wr-n-nsw/nb-tA.wjjm.j-r'-Snw.tj-n.w/m-Sma.w-mH.wsXA.w-wDH.wm-kAp-¡rsXA.w-wDH.w-m-aH-n-[nsw]sXA.w-nsw-ab.w-r'-nsw-m-Sms.wt=fsXA.w-nsw-ab.wr'-nsw-m-aH-n-nsw sXA.w-nsw-mAa-mr=f Nfr-sxr.w(Zawiet Sultan, early 19th Dynasty: Osing
1992); jm.j-r'-n'.t-TA.tj (PA-)Ra-Htp (Sedment, Ra. II.: Raue 1998; Raedler 2004, 354-375); Hr.jsA.wtj-sXA.wHr.j-sA.wtj-sXA.w-n-nb-tA.wjsXA.w-nsw-n-nb-tA.wjRa-ms (Sedment,S.I.:Petrie
and brunton 1924, 27, pls 77,1, 77,3-6); jm.j-r'-Sms.w sXA.w-n-nb-tA.wj 2nm.w-m-HAb
(Sedment, S.I.: Petrie and brunton 1924, pl. 77, 9-10); jm.j-r'-mSa-wr-n-nb-tA.wj jm.jr'-Sms.w-n-nb-tA.wj wpw.tj-nsw-r-xAs.t-nb(.t) kTn-tp.j-n-Hm=f 4tXy (Sedment, S.I.: Petrie
and brunton 1924, 27, pls 69-70); jm.j-r'-ssm.t jdn.w-n-tj-n.t-Htr Hr.j-pD.t kTn-tp.j-n-Hm=f
J. S. G. Auenmüller
182
feasible explanation seems to be that these tombs were built in the elite
necropoleis of the hometown of the oicial in question (cf. Herrmann 1936,
23; Hayes 1939, 24; Helck 1958, 540; Osing 1992, 35; Raue 1998, 350).
Taking the spatial range of these tombs into account, it is remarkable that
they are distributed all the way from Lower Nubia to the Delta. There are
regional concentrations, but no area of the Nile valley or regions such as
the Delta is left out.
tomb location: textual discourse
Having listed some provincial elite necropoleis containing tombs
belonging to members of the Hofstaat, their location can now be placed
in context to reveal their territorial meaning. Certain textual statements of
elite Egyptians commenting on the location of their tombs can be highlighted
here. They come from tombs of the capital city necropoleis, but also seemingly
in larger quantities from sepulchres located in provincial cemeteries.
Keeping Jan Assmann’s (2000, 229) characterisation of the Egyptian tomb
as the ‘essential focus of belonging’ in mind, we can now add another remark
of his, that Egyptians considered their place of birth to be the ideal spot for
their tomb. This implies that a person’s origin and provenance were expressed
PA-Hm-nTr (Sedment, Ra. II.: Petrie and brunton 1924, 27-28, pls 56,6, 68, 78,28-31); jm.j-r'mSa-wr sXA.w-nsw 1rj (Sedment, 19th Dynasty: Petrie and brunton 1924, pls 48,16-17, 58,46);
sXA.w-n-tA-Sa.t-pr-aA Maj (5) (Heliopolis/Gebel el-Naam, mid 20th Dynasty: Raue 1999, 198199); wbA.w Ra-ms-sw-m-pr-Ra (1) (Heliopolis/Ain Schams, Ramesside: Raue 1999, 228);
wbA.w-nsw-wab-a.wj Ra-mss/Nxt-Hr-Km.t (1) (Heliopolis/Ain Schams, Ramesside: Raue
1999, 229); jm.j-r'-pr-wr-n-nb-tA.wj jm.j-r'-Snw.tj sXA.w-nsw 2aj-m-WAs.t (1) (Heliopolis/
Matariya, Ra. III.-Iv.: Raue 1999, 243-244); jm.j-r'-xAs.wt-rs.jt Hr.j-pD.t-n-KS sXA.wnsw TA.y-xw-Hr-wnm.j-n-nsw PyjAy (Tell El-Yahudijeh/Shinbin El-Qanateer (Chobak),
Ramesside: Daressy 1920); jm.j-r'-mSa jm.j-r'-mnfy.t sXA.w-nsw-mAa-mry=f MnT.w-mtA.wj (Athribis, Ra. II. or. III.: vernus 1978, doc. 58, 59); sA-nsw-n-KS 1rj I (bubastis,
Ra. III.: Habachi 1980a); jm.j-r'-xAs.wt sA-nsw-n-KS sXA.w-nsw TA.y-xw-Hr-wnm.j-n-nsw
1rj II (bubastis, Ra. III.: Habachi 1980b); jm.j-r'-n'.t-TA.tj Jwtj (bubastis, Ra. III. (?):
Habachi and Ghalioungui 1971, 68-69; Moje, forthcoming a; Moje, forthcoming b); jm.jr'-a-Xnw.tj-n-nb-tA.wjwbA.w-nsw-wab-a.wj-(m-bAH-n-nb-tA.wj)wpw.tj-nsw-r-xAs.twpw.tjnsw-r-tA-nTr sSm-HAb-n-Jtm.wTA.y-xw-Hr-wnm.j-n-nsw Qn-Jmn (Tell El-Maskhuta, Ra. II.:
see the press releases http://www.drhawass.com/blog/press-release-new-tomb-discoveredismailia [status as of Feb. 26th, 2013] and http://news.discovery.com/history/tomb-of-kenamun-royal-court-oicial-unearthed-in-egypt.html [status as of Nov. 27th, 2012]. I would
like to thank Sławomir Rzepka for photographs and information about this tomb, which
was completely destroyed during the revolution at the beginning of 2011: see http://www.
drhawass.com/blog/status-egyptian-antiquitiestoday-3-march-2011 [status as of Nov. 27th,
2012]).
The location of New Kingdom elite tombs...
183
by the location of his tomb. A contrasting and opposing relationship was
the person’s proximity to the king or court administration, which could
‘create even stronger ailiations, constitute an even stronger focus
of identity.’ (transl. by the author from Assmann 2000, 318, Fn. 468).
Coming back to the textual discourse and the categories of space that
are of importance in this regard, in an ofering formula of the 18th Dynasty
to Ptah we read: ‘May he (=Ptah) give, that the footsteps are at their (proper)
place without fear of hearing evil until the achievement of the jmAx- status
in peace in the Great West of his city like all the favoured ones’ (barta 1968,
120, bitte 114c). The expression ‘his city’ refers to the city of Ptah,
the hometown of the individual, in whose western necropolis he wishes to be
buried. The nexus between ‘city’, tomb and social memory is paradigmatically
expressed in a passage on an early 19th Dynasty tomb stela from Saqqara
of the Overseer of the Women’s Quarters, PtH-ms (MMA 67.3), who is
even designated to come from Memphis by a so-called ‘Herkunftsvermerk’
(cf. Auenmüller, forthcoming, 364-366). In line 13 we read in an adoration
to the city god Ptah: ‘May you grant that I rest <in> (my) Place of Eternity
in the west of my city 1w.t-kA-PtH (=Memphis) and that I reach the fathers
and forefathers who are (already) gone in peace’ (Kamal 1905, 29-31; Mercer
1914, 177-178, Pl. 9; see also http://www.metmuseum.org/collections/
search-the-collections/100006154 [status as of Feb. 22nd, 2013]).
At the beginning of the 18th Dynasty, a certain Captain JaH-ms, Son
of Ibana, comments upon the fact that he himself built his rock-cut tomb
in the necropolis of Elkab in Upper Egypt: ‘I became old, after reaching
age. My favour was like the irst of times, my popularity [was …]. (Now)
I [rest] in the rock-cut tomb, which I myself made (for me)’ (Urk. 4.10.5-9).
We ind a comparable statement in an elite tomb chamber belonging
to the treasurer 4bk-ms in Er-Rizeiqat under Amenhotep III, some 24km south
of Thebes. In a prayer to the moon, he describes himself as follows: ‘He has
built his tomb, which he founded in thy province, this his tomb being in it’
(Hayes 1939, pl. 5). In this context, William C. Hayes (1939, 24) observes
that ‘[t]here can be little doubt that Sobk-mose was a resident, if not a native,
of his town. (…); and the fact that he built his tomb in this small out-ofthe-way place instead of at the capital city, Thebes, where he worked and
spent much of his time, indicates that he must at least have resided in Sumenu
(Er-Rizeiqat) long enough to regard it as his home’. In the text of a stela
of the mayor of Kawa PA-nxt in Upper Nubia from the time of Tut-ankhAmen, we ind a prayer to [Amun, Re-Harakhte] and Atum, wherein PA-nxt
speaks about his wish to be endowed with life in ‘his city’, which is supposedly
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J. S. G. Auenmüller
Kawa. Additionally, we read about his desire for ‘a perfect interment after
old age in the great western necropolis of his city in order to become jmAx’
in an ofering formula (Macadam 1949, 1-3, pls 2-3). Although we do not
yet know of a contemporaneous New Kingdom necropolis located in Kawa,
M. F. Laming Macadam (1949, 3, Fn. 14) assumes that it has once existed
in the environs of the city. In view of PA-nxt’ s role as the mayor of Kawa,
it is very possible that Kawa was not only his place of oice, but that it also
could be his place of origin. On the contrary, he might also be one of
the Egyptian oicials which were sent to Kawa by Tutankhamen to administer
his newly established city in Upper Nubia.
Advancing a little in time to the late 18th/early 19th Dynasty and moving
to Zawiet Sultan, ancient Hebenu, in Middle Egypt, we ind the rock-cut
tomb of Nfr-sxr.w, who was high steward of the king. During his tenure,
he would presumably have lived and worked at the Memphite residence
(Osing 1992, 35). Several texts in his tomb, which Nfr-sxr.w calls
‘my tomb in the midst of the Oryx nome’ (Osing 1992, 46, pl. 35, col. 3)
or ‘my tomb in 1bnw’ (Osing 1992, 75, pl. 44), explicitly concern its location
in the necropolis itself under the prominent hilltop. They additionally refer
to the role of the city god Horus of Hebenu in assigning this tomb to Nfrsxr.w: ‘Horus, the lord of Hebenu, the Great god in the Oryx nome, he may
grant (me) to be buried in the mountain ridge of his city, to perfectly land
in peace because of (my) jmAx-status on the day of the perfect burial, which
he commands.’ Nfr-sxr.w elaborates on this as follows: ‘May my tomb
be irm in his city and my corpse within it, without my name perishing
on it ever in the future.’ Finally, he comments on the fact that he deliberately
built his tomb there: ‘I erected (my) cavern near his temple (...)’ (all citations
after Osing 1992, 62, pl. 39d). In these texts, the relationship between
the city, the city god and the location of the tomb are portrayed in exemplary
fashion, but the term ‘city’ is only used here to refer to the city of the local
god Horus of Hebenu.
Moving back to Lower Nubia into the early 20th Dynasty, we encounter
an elaborate rock-cut tomb at Nag’ el-bogga, now lost in the waters
of Lake Nasser, of an jm.j-r’-pr-wr-n-pr-Hm.t-nsw called Nxt-Mnw (Hermann
1936). There are indications that Nxt-mnw was connected to the temple
of Re at Heliopolis and its festivals, since there is a standard-bearer statue
of both him and his mother Mr=s-gr (now kept in berlin, ̈M 4422) which
was most likely erected in Heliopolis (Raue 1999, 221-223). In the context
of his tomb decoration, we ind a ritual scene in which the tomb owner
is ofered by a Hm-kA-priest. The priest addresses Nxt-Mnw as follows:
The location of New Kingdom elite tombs...
185
‘You are in your tomb [of eternity?], which you built (for yourself) in your
city and which was assigned by [your] lord [for you ...]’ (Hermann, 1936,
12). by combining the contents of this passage with the tomb location,
it becomes clear that Nxt-mnw really returned to Lower Nubia for burial
and that the tomb explicitly marks his place of origin.
conclusion
There are more examples of such texts which could be quoted. However,
it can already be seen that the location of a tomb of a member of the elite has
to be understood in the context of Assmann’s three pivotal terms: Heimat,
Grab, Stadt (Assmann 2000, 229-238). Nevertheless, location currently only
plays a small role in discourse concerning the Egyptian tomb and its meaning
as a whole. The relationship of the tomb owner to the king, his social and
functional roles, his integration into and prominence within his own personal
surroundings, as well as the provision of oferings, the functioning of rituals
and the safe passage through the liminal phases of death and burial have
generated far more Egyptological interest. It therefore seems that location
has overwhelmingly been considered an implicit discursive category when
thinking about the signiicance of tombs. However, if we regard an Egyptian
elite tomb as a monument for posterity that operated as a cult place regularly
visited by priests and members of the family (especially during speciic
feasts and gods’ festivals), we can see the necessity of having a location
where all of these ritual and social demands could be met. For instance,
if an elite member of the Theban or Memphite Hofstaat erected his tomb
in a provincial setting and not in one of the capital city necropoleis,
we may assume that his family and primal social ties were to be found
in precisely this provincial milieu. Therefore, we can also postulate that
the site of the tomb is of importance since it marks his geographical origin.
More research is perhaps needed on speciic functional groups
of the Egyptian elite to gain a clearer picture of how social status,
administrative function and the choice or assignment of tomb locations are
interrelated. However, it is clear that tomb location was subject to social
scaling; the highest members of the administrative elite seem to have been
buried in the capital city necropoleis, whilst the lower strata of the elite
(in terms of functional rank and local duties) chose to be buried in cemeteries
of their hometown or place of oice. Whilst place of origin and oice usually
coincided in the lower elite milieu, this link, which Assmann describes
as the cultural ideal (Assmann 2000, 229), was broken in the higher classes.
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These people either decided or obtained permission from the king to build
their tombs in the elite necropoleis of Thebes, Amarna or Memphis, even
if they did not originate or were not recruited from there. However, there
are exceptions to this phenomenon, for example the monumental tomb
of the vizier (PA)-Ra-Htp at Sedment (see above Fn. 5). His case and
others, such as the oicials 4bk-ms, Nfr-sxr.w and Nxt-Mnw discussed
above, demonstrate that the location of the tomb even if no text such as
those previously discussed has been found really tells us something about
the spatial relations of its owner in terms of geographic provenance.
Generally, a tension is always visible between the factors of hometown,
family, place of oice and proximity to the king. However, this is only
the case at the highest levels of the administrative, religious and military
elite. When asking who these people were and where they came from,
we should therefore now take the location of their tomb into account with
good reason. We can then ask what kind of relationship is marked by these
funerary monuments. Is it geographic origin and social embeddedness,
functional duties, proximity to the king or two or all three of these aspects
combined? These were the ideological considerations determining the site
of erection of an elite tomb. They portray the key elements in the territoriality
of the Egyptian elite of the New Kingdom in terms of the elite’s spatial
identity and behaviour. In any case, the tomb is signiicant in that it signiies
the spatial relationship between the owner and the location where it was
built. Even if the tomb does not mark the place of origin of its owner and
thus does not follow the supposed Egyptian ‘ideal’, it still constitutes
a culturally meaningful and consciously claimed territorial relation of his
to space and place.
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Johannes Stefan G. Auenmüller
Egyptology Seminar, Free University of berlin
Egyptological Institute with the Egyptian Museum,
University of bonn
johannes_auenmueller@yahoo.de
S T U D I E S I N A N C I E N T A RT A N D C I v I L I Z AT I O N 18
Kraków 2014
Piotr Czerkwiński
Warsaw
THE BEARd OF RAMESES VI1
Abstract: The beard irst appeared in Egyptian iconography
in the Early Dynastic period on the Narmer palette and remained a common
feature thereafter. The pharaoh, as a god on earth, was a personiication
of perfection. Always crisp and clean-shaven, he represented both
the Egyptian nation and divine power. His fake beard, which was attached
with ribbons and was clearly visible on his images and reliefs, was one
of the elements indicating his divine nature.
Ordinary people also grew beards or moustaches. We can see stubble
on the faces of men mostly engaged in physical work on a number of images
on the walls of tombs. However, in these cases, the facial hair would not
have indicated any godly qualities.
Nevertheless, some depictions of the pharaoh are similar to those
of simple men in that he also possesses stubble. This is most clearly seen
on a number of ostracons from Deir el-Medina. However, if the pharaoh
has stubble, its signiicance is quite diferent. Very few such unshaven images
are known and published and only a small number of these are oicial
depictions. The inal such image that will be considered is the one found
in KV 9 belonging to Pharaoh Rameses VI.
Keywords: Rameses VI; KV 9; iconography of the king; beard;
khepresh
The pharaoh, as a god on earth, had to embody an ideal. Always fresh
and clean-shaven, he represented both the Egyptian nation and divine power.
I would like to express my gratitude to Andrzej Ćwiek, PhD, the curator of the Egyptology
unit of the Poznań Archaeological Museum, for all his help in collecting the comparative
materials and his valuable suggestions.
1
DOI: 10.12797/SAAC.18.2014.18.12
196
P. Czerkwiński
His false beard, which was tied on with a ribbon, is visible in many of his
images and signiies his divine nature. These canonical depictions can be
found on sarcophagi and the walls of tombs and temples. Due to the fact that
they are oicial images, they are not diicult to interpret.
However, other images show the pharaoh with a completely diferent
kind of facial hair. In these, the king has natural stubble. These are mainly
encountered on a number of ostraca from Deir el-Medina,2 but can also be
found, albeit less frequently, on the walls of temples or tombs, as well as
in sculpture:
1. berlin Statuette 21836 from Tell el-Amarna (Schäfer 1934, 4, Abb. 3
and Taf. 1, 2; Desroches-Noblecourt 1947, 189, igs 1-3; Kaiser 1967,
Abb. 746).
2. Tell el-Amarna Ostracon (Desroches-Noblecourt 1947, 190, ig. 4;
Pendlebury 1932, pl. 14: 1).
3. berlin Ostracon 23674 (Schäfer 1934, 5, Abb. 5; DesrochesNoblecourt 1947, 191, ig. 5).
4. Deir el-Medina Ostracon no. 2568 (vandier d’Abbadie 1937,
pl. LXXII).
5. Deir el-Medina Ostracon no. 2569 (vandier d’Abbadie 1937,
pl. LXXIII).
6. Deir el-Medina Ostracon no. 2972 (vandier d’Abbadie 1959,
pl. CXLII).
7. Deir el-Medina Ostracon no. 2977 (vandier d’Abbadie 1959,
pl. CXLv).
8. baltimore Ostracon no. 32.1 (Peck 1978, 104; Mathieu 2003, 229).
9. Wall decoration of TT 341 (Rameses II) (Davies and Gardiner 1936,
pl. C; Lüddekens 1943; Desroches-Noblecourt 1947, 193, ig. 8; Davies
and Gardiner 1948, 31-41; Porter and Moss 1960, 408-409; Leblanc 2010,
276).
10. Wall decoration of Abu Simbel temple (Rameses II) (Champollion
1835, pl. Xv).
11. Wall decoration of Abu Simbel temple (Rameses II) (Champollion
1835, pl. XvII).
12. Wall decoration of Abu Simbel temple (Rameses II) (Champollion
1835, pl. XXXv; Desroches-Noblecourt 1947, 196, ig. 12 and 197,
ig. 12 bis).
2
The ostraca from Deir el-Medina have order numbers which are listed in vandier
d’Abbadie’s publications (1937; 1959), apart from baltimore Ostracon no. 32.1.
The beard of Rameses vI
197
Fig. 1. Detail of the image of Rameses vI from Chamber F.
Reproduced from Piankof 1954, vol. 1, frontispiece
13. Wall decoration of Kv 6 (Rameses IX) (Lepsius 1853, bl. 234a;
Schäfer 1934, 4, Abb. 4; Desroches-Noblecourt 1947, 199, ig. 13).
One more image of Rameses v/vI should be added to this list, namely
the one found in the Kv 9 tomb in the valley of the Kings (Fig. 1). The scene
in question is located on the southwestern wall of the pillared Chamber
F3 and presents a double symmetrical representation of Osiris seated
in a chapel (Piankof 1954, vol. 2, pl. 63) with the king in front of the god
igure on each side. Rameses v was initially on the right, as is evidenced
3
Piankof (1954, vol. 1, ig. 2) names it Chamber Hall E.
198
P. Czerkwiński
by the re-inscription of the cartouches. He is worshipping Osiris, holding
incense in one hand and a libation vase in the other. The king on the left
is holding an incense burner in his outstretched hand, whilst a symbol
of the Sed festival (related to the celebration of the pharaoh’s rule) hangs
from his right arm (Piankof 1954, vol. 2, pl. 64; Hornung and Staehelin
2006, 46).
In both scenes, the king wears a khepresh crown (Gardiner 1953, 20,
note qq, pl. II; Strauss 1980, 814-815; Davies 1982, 69-76; Leahy 1992,
223-240). At irst glance, it seems that there is nothing unusual about this
scene, but on closer inspection the king’s face can be seen to be covered
in stubble (Piankof 1954, vol. 1, frontispiece; Piankof 1954, vol. 2, pl. 62).
The time at which stubble was added to the image is not known, but there are
at least two possibilities based on the information we have available:
1. During the lifetime of Rameses v. Decoration work on the Pillared
Chamber continued throughout the lifetime of Rameses v, but was interrupted
by his death (Abitz 1989, 40-48). At this time, Rameses vI took control
of the tomb and Rameses v was only buried in the second year of his reign
(Peden 1994, 83-88; Peden 2001, 21, note 5). If the image of Rameses v was
inished at this time, it is possible that the stubble represented the mourning
of Rameses v for his predecessor, Rameses Iv.
2. When Rameses vI took possession of the tomb. At this time, work
on other rooms in Kv 9 was continued and the cartouches of Rameses v
were re-inscribed with the name of his successor (Peden 2001, 83-84).
It is possible that the beard was painted on the image of the king at this time,
which would suggest that it represented the mourning of Rameses vI for
Rameses v.
Previous attempts have been made to interpret this type of image and
there are therefore several theories concerning its existence. The earliest
known image of this kind is wooden statuette no. 23674 from the berlin
museum (Schäfer 1934, 5; Desroches-Noblecourt 1947, 191), which depicts
Amenhotep Iv. The second such image can be found on the Tell el-Amarna
ostracon. In this case, the stubble was not painted, but carved on the surface
of the cheek instead (Pendleburry 1932, 148). The very fact that the ruler
had this type of beard at all may indicate that this was the manner in which
the new pharaoh could, or perhaps had to, show his grief at the death
of his predecessor (Mathieu 2003, 228). Other evidence, such as the tears that
can be discerned on some ostraca (e.g. Deir el Medinah no. 2568 [vandier
d’Abbadie 1937, 116-117, pl. LXXII], baltimore no. 23.1 [Mathieu 2003,
229; Schuls and Seidel 2009]), could support this theory.
The beard of Rameses vI
199
Fig. 2. Detail of Rameses II from the battle scene of Abu Simbel.
Reproduced from Champollion 1835, pl. XvII
One key observation is that the pharaoh’s stubble only appears
in combination with the khepresh crown. This representation of the king
is believed to have signiied the initial period just after the assumption
of power by the new monarch and the coronation that took place during
the mourning period (Mathieu 2003, 229-230). The image of the pharaoh
from tomb TT 341 in Sheikh Abd el-Gournah (Davies and Gardiner 1936,
pl. C) and the igure of Rameses II in the Abu Simbel temple (Champollion
1835, pl. Xv) are good examples of this scene. On the day of the funeral
of his predecessor, the new king could shave of his stubble and end
the mourning period.
This theory could perhaps be modiied on the basis of a battle scene
of Rameses II from Abu Simbel (Champollion 1835, pl. XvII), in which
the pharaoh’s head is adorned with a wig (Fig. 2) instead of a khepresh
crown. To the best of my knowledge, this scene has never been linked
to the issue of the pharaoh’s stubble. Another example is ostracon
200
P. Czerkwiński
no. 2977 found in Deir el-Medina (vandier d’Abbadie 1959, pl. CXLv).
On this preserved fragment, there is an image of the king with his head turned
to the right adorned with a wig and a uraeus. It is diicult to unambiguously
state what the circumstances leading to the pharaoh’s depiction on
the ostracon in this manner could have been. His hand and its placement
in front of the face may have indicated the religious nature of the scene,
as the gods were characteristically worshipped by the raising of one hand.
However, after reconstruction of the ruler’s face, it is evident that the hand
is placed too high in regard to the head, meaning that the forearm runs
straight across the king’s face (Fig. 3).
based on only these two images, it is impossible to state categorically
whether the igure on the ostracon is also Rameses II, as the wig
is the only element that connects them. As far as the dating of individual
ostraca showing images of the pharaoh in mourning is concerned, the majority
of them date back to the Ramesside period, examples of which are ostracon
Fig. 3. Ostracon no. 2977 of Deir el-Medina with a reconstruction of the face.
Reproduced from vandier d’Abbadie 1959, pl. CXLv
The beard of Rameses vI
201
no. 2568 from Deir el-Medina and baltimore no. 32.1. However, there
is no sound rationale according to which individual depictions may
be assigned to speciic rulers.4 When comparing the images, it is clear
that ostracon no. 2977 (Fig. 3) and the representation from Abu Simbel
(Fig. 2) are characterised by the slenderness of the king’s features.
The image of Rameses v/vI from Kv 9 has more portly features.
For the two representations to be assigned to the same king, the diferences
in face plasticity could only be explained if the irst two images showed
the king as a younger man with softer features.
Aside from the example of Abu Simbel, I have yet to come across any
representation of the pharaoh in both a wig and with stubble. However,
at this point it is necessary to question if the image of a pharaoh in a wig
and with stubble can really be connected to the period of mourning for his
predecessor, especially considering that this image appears in battle scenes
(Champollion 1835, pls Xv, XvII). In any case, there is no doubt that these
images of the ruler merit close inspection, especially when the khepresh
crown is also present. Two futher questions must also be asked. Why does
this convention appear only from the times of Akhenaten onwards and why
does it occur on a wider scale in Ramesside times?
For those more familiar with the issue, my remarks about the image
from the tomb of Rameses vI may seem unnecessary. However, such scenes
are not very common in Egyptian iconography. In fact, as far as I know, only
fourteen examples have been discovered from the entire Pharaonic period
to date.5 The scarcity of comparative material could be the result of the fact
that many images of the New Kingdom period were destroyed. It is also
possible that this decorative detail was not preserved in drawings of scenes
from tombs or temples, especially from the end of the 19th to the beginning
of the 20th century. It could easily have been overlooked or considered to be
insigniicant or meaningless in the context of the entire scene. It should also
be kept in mind that even published material sometimes includes elements
that have previously been overlooked and therefore have not been covered
by later studies. A. Piankof himself, the author of a two-volume publication
The assignation of certain images to speciic rulers has already been attempted: Deir
el-Medina Ostracon no. 2568 – Seti I; Deir el-Medina Ostracon no. 2569 – Amenhotep III
(Mathieu 2003, 228-230). It is perhaps possible to assign Deir el-Medina Ostracon
no. 2977 to the igure of Seti I based on the plasticity of the face. His image from Karnak
was used as the basis for the reconstruction of the missing fragments of the face
on the ostracon (The Epigraphic Survey 1985, XvIII, pl. 20: b).
5
Pendlebury (1932, 148) additionally names an image of Rameses III from his tomb
in the valley of the Kings, but I myself have seen no such scene there.
4
202
P. Czerkwiński
on the tomb of Rameses vI, failed to mention the pharaoh’s beard, which
led to it being overlooked and ignored in archaeological literature for a very
long period. Even more interestingly, Piankof (1954, vol. 1, frontispiece,
vol. 2, pl. 62) made the scene containing the bearded Rameses vI
the frontispiece of his irst volume and I myself failed to notice this detail,
despite being familiar with the publication. In fact, it was only during my work
on Kv 9 that I had the chance to see the images up close and observe
the atypical representation of the pharaoh.6
To be able to examine the evolution of the trend more thoroughly,
it must be hoped that the database of these representations will grow. I very
much hope that this ‘new’ example of a bearded pharaoh will allow the scope
of research on the topic to be extended and for answers to be found to these
troubling issues concerning the pharaoh’s beard.
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6
This was during the Polish Epigraphical Mission in the Tomb of Ramesses vI (Kv 9)
carried out by Professor Adam Łukaszewicz in March, 2010 under the auspices
of the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology of the University of Warsaw.
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Piotr Czerkwiński
Antiquity of South-Eastern Europe Research Centre
University of Warsaw
p.czerkwinski@gmail.com
S T U D I E S I N A N C I E N T A RT A N D C I v I L I Z AT I O N 18
Kraków 2014
Grzegorz First
Krakow
POLyCEPHALy – SOME REMARkS
ON THE MULTI-HEADED NATURE
OF LATE EGyPTIAN POLyMORPHIC
dEITIES
Abstract: One of the most intriguing motifs of Egyptian religious
iconography is the representation of ‘pantheos’, a composite deity with
additional animal heads and other animal attributes, as well as magical
and religious symbols. This group is commonly described in Egyptology
as pantheistic, although the new deinition of ‘polymorphic’ has recently
been proposed. This term does not lean towards any particular area
of interpretation, but simply refers to a single visual aspect of the motif.
The group of Late Egyptian, Ptolemaic and Roman objects with this type
of representation consists of statuettes, magical stelae, amulets, illustrations
on papyri and gems. The main feature of polymorphic deities is their additional
animal elements, which are attached to the basic corpus. These elements
are mostly heads, wings and other parts of the animal’s body, although
polymorphic depictions also sometimes contain ithyphallic or androgynous
elements. The most important element of polymorphic iconography and its
interpretation is the multi-headed nature of the images. This suggests both
that complicated thought processes created the composition of the depictions
and that they had a close relationship to magic and religion. A polymorphic
representation was not a simple visualisation of just one religious idea
or god, but was testament to the diverse thinking behind popular and oicial
beliefs in ancient Egypt in the second half of the 1st millennium BC and
in later times. The debate on polymorphism centres either on the possible
search for a personal, universal god with a solar, hidden aspect
DOI: 10.12797/SAAC.18.2014.18.13
206
G. First
or focuses on the magical, practical dimension, which provided protection
for the people from evil powers and dangers.
Keywords: Religion; magic; Late Egyptian religious iconography
introduction – the pantheistic and the polymorphic
One of the most characteristic features of Egyptian religious iconography
is the variety and mixture of symbolic concepts with sophisticated meanings
that are visible in magical and personal cult objects. A particularly interesting
category consists of ‘pantheistic deities’, which are depicted with additional
animal heads, as well as multiple other animal and magical attributes (Kákosy
1977, 145-148; Hornung 2000, 1-20; Kákosy 2000, 45-49; Kaper 2003,
91-99). These depictions have been known since the beginnings
of Egyptology, yet an in-depth study devoted to their context and function
has not yet been conducted.
The terms ‘pantheistic deities’ and ‘pantheos’, which are still in common
usage in Egyptology, are sometimes criticised for providing a rather uncertain
interpretation of this type of depiction (Leitz 1994, 244; Kaper 2003,
85-104; Koenig 2011, 252-253). The adoption of the term ‘paniconic’
has also been suggested to signify a composite depiction focused on one
god, as opposed to pantheistic images, which focus on a multitude of gods
(Meeks 1986, 184; Zivie-Coche 2004, 20). In 2006, J. F. Quack (2006a,
175-190) proposed the deinition of ‘polymorphic deities’, a term that does
not limit itself to a singular interpretation and refers only to the visual nature
of the motif. Naturally, this term can be regarded as questionable;
‘polymorphic’ does not possess much of a religious connotation, being more
connected to the biological and physical realms. However, the term is already
used in reference to certain religious systems, such as Hinduism. Within
the context of Egyptian religious iconographic terminology, it is also
necessary to mention the expression ‘polymorphic monotheism’, which refers
to the 21st Dynasty and to the concept of multiple representations, images
and names of one singular deity. This god is ‘in everything and everything
is in God’ (Niwiński 1989, 89-106; Niwiński 2000, 28). The term is also
used in the context of Gnostic depictions of God in various forms known
from early Christianity. This is an area that certainly merits further study
(Stroumsa 1981, 412-434; Junod 1982, 38-46; Koenig 1998, 661-664).
The term ‘pantheistic deity’ traditionally refers to a representation which
includes a conglomeration of human and animal elements, such as the heads
of various animal species with other animal body parts such as wings, tails,
Polycephaly - some remarks on the multi-headed nature...
207
genitalia and legs (Fig. 1). It has been stated that at least four additional heads
or other animal body parts are required for an image to warrant this description
(Kaper 2003, 97; Lieven 2005, 32; Quack 2006a ,175; Cosens 2007, 181-184).
Pantheos representations also include numerous embedded magical symbols,
such as a snake eating its own tail (ouroboros), knives and the royal insignia
held by the deity depicted. Certain elements of the body are often multiplied,
most often the eyes, wings or arms. This kind of representation is shown
en face, which is rare in Egyptian iconography and therefore emphasises
its unique character (Romano 1980, 39-56; volokhine 1994, 92-95; volokhine
2000, 69-83). The overload and combination of various attributes is another
characteristic feature that gives the examples their ‘hybrid’ nature, in which
human elements are replaced by mixed animal and magical elements,
which are sometimes androgynous (Fischer 1987, 13-26; Hornung 2000,
17-20; Zivie-Coche 2004, 15, 26-28). All of the features described above
do not, however, present an exhaustive description of pantheistic images.
This is due to the hugely varied nature of pantheistic iconography, the lack
of a ‘canonical form’ and the diference in deity depictions, which depends
on the type of object upon which the representation is found. In addition,
many images described in older literature as pantheistic can now be regarded
as a form of the sun god or other deities. They may also have royal origins
and could have provided protection for the king (Quack 2006b, 53-64).
There is still no commonly accepted attitude for dealing with the issue
of polymorphic/pantheistic images, but it is generally agreed that their
meaning and interpretation are both
interesting and ambiguous (First
2011, 53-64). The currently very
topical subject of ancient Egyptian
‘visual archaeology’ is worth much
consideration when dealing with
iconography, symbolic studies
and semantic research.
Fig. 1. Polymorphic deity on the healing
statue of Pa-Maj (Napoli, Museo
Archeologico Nazionale, inv. no. 1065).
Reproduced from Myśliwiec 1978,
Abb 92
208
G. First
Multi-headed as a polymorphic
The main feature of a polymorphic deity is the addition of animal
elements, which are attached to the basic corpus. These elements are mostly
heads, wings and other parts of the animal body. Polymorphic depictions
are also known for their ithyphallic and sometimes androgynous elements,
which do not have any sexual connotations, but rather symbolise
aggression and power. The following elements can also be seen as features
of polymorphic iconography: a mixture of symbolic and magical elements
of diferent origins, the multiplication of certain elements and amalgams
of animal components that nevertheless retain their separate nature.
A signiicant distinction should be made between deities with the heads
of diferent animal types and deities with the heads (most often four) of one
type of animal, as the latter is a clear manifestation of the Sun or Great God
(Myśliwiec 1978, 51-62). One example of this is the four-headed
god on the centre of hypocephali (Gee 2001, 325-334). It is also worth
mentioning the ‘Lord of Many Faces’, the ‘Lord of Many Forms’ and other
forms of the Great God from early 21st Dynasty iconographical sources,
which may be interpreted as later versions of igures from the Litany of Ra
(Piankof 1964, 10-12, 19; Niwiński 2000, 33-35). Additionally, O. Kaper
(2003, 87) has pointed out that the presence of a theriomorphic attribute
does not necessarily mean a depiction is pantheistic. The core element here
is ‘pluriformity’, which can be collated with ‘polymorphism’.
Multi-headedness in iconography
As mentioned previously, the main feature of polymorphic representations is that of additional animal heads, which are usually placed alongside
the deity’s head. The range of additional heads used was wide, but most
often were the heads of animals worshipped as incarnations of Egyptian deities related to the cult of the Sun. The number of additional heads was not
incidental. There had to be at least four heads and some possessed as many
as seven or nine heads. Representations with an even higher number of
heads are rare, although a few with twelve heads do exist, such as a healing
statue of Djedhor (Fig. 2; Jelínková-Reymond 1956, 22, 37; Hornung 2000,
46-47). It should be noted here that the kind of animal used was not normally repeated, meaning the animal heads were generally of diferent animal
species. This feature strongly distinguishes polymorphic representations
from the four-headed (normally of the ram) images of the Sun God that
Polycephaly - some remarks on the multi-headed nature...
209
Fig. 2. Polymorphic deity on
the healing statue of Djedhor,
4th century bC (Egyptian Museum in Cairo, inv. no. 46341).
Reproduced from Hornung 2000,
46-47.
we know from hypocephali
and other sources. The animal heads used in polymorphic representations are
those of the ram, the bull,
the lion, the dog (jackal),
the falcon, the baboon,
the cat and the crocodile.
Symmetry was always
maintained, meaning that
the heads were placed
evenly on both sides of a
central head. Sometimes,
the depictions are complemented by a crown. In such
cases, the heads grow out of the crown, as in one of the best known examples
on Metternich’s stela, in which the crown consists of a high kalathos,
crowned with a pair of ram horns, four pairs of knives and a seated
igure with hands lifted up/the ininity symbol (Fig. 3; Pleyte 1881, 128-132;
Sternberg el-Hotabi 1987, 25-69; Sternberg el-Hotabi 1999, Teil 1,
Abb. 113; Kákosy 2002, 284, ig. 2). In other representations, the crown
consists of solar discs, ostrich feathers and uraeuses, instead of ram
horns and knives. In these cases, the component elements are sometimes
multiplied.
the central face
The starting point for analysing the meaning of polymorphic deities with
a central head must be to note the domination of the head of bes. On the one
hand, it must be acknowledged that the head of bes does appear alongside
other features of the deity (visible in other parts of the polymorphic igure)
and that this often dominates the whole depiction, resulting in the mistaken
interpretation of the igure as bes (Kaper 2003, 102). However, as was
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G. First
Fig. 3. ‘bes Pantheos’ on the stela of Metternich – register IX, 30th Dynasty (Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York, inv. no. 50.85). Reproduced from Sternberg el-Hotabi 1999,
Teil 1, Abb 113.
noted as early as 1966 by L. Kákosy, bes should be treated in this instance
as a ‘transmitter/vehicle’ – a tool for depicting the idea and not the features
of bes himself (Kákosy 1966, 185-196; Derchain 1969, 31-34). The face
of bes has a universal and capacious nature and is not linked to any
other ‘oicial’ deity as a symbol or attribute (Amun with face of bes:
Michaïlidis 1968, ig. 31, pl. III). The composed face of bes (as well as his other
features) highlights the universal nature of the polymorphic igure. In cases
when a depiction of another deity in either human or animal form is present,
the polymorphic igure is dominated by that particular deity. bes did not
pose the danger of ‘domination’ and, as a result, there is no dominating head
when the face of bes is not employed. For the record, it should be noted
that some depictions do exist that bore other faces, but their modest number
makes them far from noteworthy at present.
The lack of a deity’s head is rare, but it is not unusual in complex religious
iconography (Meeks 1991, 5-15; Hornung 2000, 1-20). However, in the case
of polymorphic depictions, what we can see is not a missing head,
but rather multiple heads functioning together as one central head.
This visual content ‘solution’ is common in iconography and is often used
in depictions of the solar deity in human form (sometimes mummiied)
Polycephaly - some remarks on the multi-headed nature...
211
sitting with four ram heads and a crown. Despite its common description as
pantheistic and its visual similarity, this image is not polymorphic in itself,
as it only depicts a multiplied aspect of the solar deity. It can also be found
on various diferent objects. In most cases, the igure has the head of just one
animal species, which is usually the ram. An example of such a igure, which
is incredibly interesting due to its rare usage of three-dimensional iconography,
is a statue of a ram with four heads made of lapis lazuli that comes from
Kom el-Ahmar (Wainwright 1925, 145-147). In most cases, this deity occurs
on the vignettes of papyrus, healing statues and sarcophagi and is also
a distinguishing feature and the central motif of hypocephali. both this
item itself and the scenes shown on it are closely related to chapter 162
of the Book of the Dead, which discusses lames over the head of the deceased
and, despite the image’s solar nature, is evidence of a close relationship
with the Osiriac circle (Yoyotte 1977, 194-202; Gee 2001, 325-334; vallée
2009, 137-144). In most cases, however, the four ram head deity scene
symbolises the moment of the sun’s birth on the horizon (Haslauer 2001,
173-184; Miatello 2008, 277-287; Czerkwiński 2011, 19-25). It should be
added that this is a rebirth (or even multiple rebirth) that is accompanied
by the screaming of baboons. At this particular moment (the end
of the night and the beginning of the day), the deity reveals his non-uniied
nature. According to one of the Ptolemaic texts from Mendes, the deity with
four ram heads is a living emanation of Ra, Shu, Geb and Osiris and appears
‘on the horizon with four heads lighting up the sky and the earth, coming
as the Nile to make the soil alive and to provide air to humanity’ (Naville
1894, 21). The head of the deity represents ire, earth, water and air and
all four elements, depicted by ram heads, are equal to one another.
The interpretation of the polymorphic igure with the central head
of bes and an additional twelve animal heads on the healing statue of Djedhor
of Cairo is of particular interest. The head of bes is here accompanied
by two additional heads with a schematically drafted proile. It seems that
the depiction could be an attempt at a three-dimensional representation
of the deity with the four heads directed in the four diferent directions
of the world, known as the ‘quadrifrons’ or ‘quadricephalous’ (Kákosy 2000,
47). This kind of representation is primarily known from the iconography
of Hathor and Amun-Ra, but it should also be noted that there are Demotic
names in which the epithet of the four faces of Min or Montu occurs.
These can be identiied as epithets of the cosmic and fertile aspects
of Amun-Min. According to J. Quaegebeur (1991, 253-268), Theban
theology enriched the four-headed Min or Montu with the aspects
212
G. First
of a deity responsible for creation in the Late period. The presence of bes
quadrifrons would thus be an attempt to depict the cosmic and creative aspect
of the god, further enhanced by the unique and therefore signiicant amount
of additional animal heads emerging from his quadrupled head.
In summary, it is worth emphasising the fact that the domination
of the face of bes (en face) is related on one level to his universal
and capacious signiicance and on the other to his undoubtedly solar
nature. Naturally, the front depiction performs an apotropaic function,
as the directing of eyes towards a person is supposed to provide protection,
care and permanent contact (compare with the Greek Gorgon: Hagen 2007,
1-65). The face of bes may thus be included into the large category of grim,
evil face depictions that aim to cripple the enemy and transmit a signal
of an aggressive nature common across many cultures (Ogden 1985-1986,
32, footnotes 17 and 18). bes on his own is supposed to scare enemies
away and this useful and traditional function should not be forgotten.
The polymorphic igure with the head of bes in its proile is usually part
of an adoration scene, examples of which can be found on the brooklyn
papyrus and the Metternich stela (Sauneron 1970). In the rare cases
of a missing central head (strongly rooted in Egyptian iconography),
a conglomeration of animal heads (without a dominating central head)
occurs. This conglomeration symbolises the complex but developed nature
of the solar deity. The diference between the variant with a central head
surrounded by additional heads and the variant of many heads without
a dominating head also seems to be important in terms of the interpretation
of a depiction. With very few exceptions, the four-headed variant represents
the whole deity with four heads of the same animal – the ram. The theory
that the heads in both variants may have a common message should not,
however, be completely rejected. At this stage, the only thing that is clear
is that the solar deity was a highly complex and complicated being.
Additional heads – the main feature of multi-headed deities
The presence of additional heads is the element that distinguishes
the polymorphic group and also the one that deines it best. The variant
of one head surrounded by a number of additional animal heads is fairly
unique and can only be seen in the depictions analysed here. The idea
of polycephaly itself was not foreign to Egyptian religious thought.
It was strongly rooted in the mixed form of traditional Egyptian iconography
and clearly related to the concept of god. Here, it is worth mentioning
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213
the mysterious hybrid igure from the sarcophagus of Hawara from
the 30th Dynasty of the Late period, which is found on the outside
of the cover at head level (Hornung 2000, 16, ig. 13, footnote 61).
This igure has a round core with a hieroglyphic text, two pairs of legs and
two pairs of arms protruding in all directions, the heads of a ram, a goose
and a snake and a ish tail. This igure is not analogous to anything
else discovered in Egyptian iconography and has not yet been clearly
interpreted.
A completely separate category of objects with additional heads
is made up of statues in which additional heads are placed not around
the central head, but on the igure’s arms or tail. These heads perform a more
complementary role and, alongside other elements of the mixed form, they
enrich the depiction of the deity presented. Another interesting depiction can
be found on one of the hypocephali of the Louvre (inv. no. N 3525A), which
portrays a two-headed human igure with an additional eight schematic
crocodile heads. However, as has already been pointed out, the polymorphic
variant distinguishes itself not only by its visually distinct features,
but also by the context of its occurrence and the functionality of the depiction.
Its distinctive nature can be seen, for example, in pantheos images on magic
gems. Other polycephalic igures most likely took the form of one of many
variants depicting an individual deity.
Analysis of polymorphic iconography has demonstrated that it is most
common for there to be a total of eight additional heads within this category.
Unfortunately, the fact that other variants with diferent amounts of heads
also exist has often been passed over in the subject’s literature. As a result,
the possibility of directly transferring the concept to the Nine-Shaped-One
remains uncertain. In the polymorphic group, the lack of a igure with four
additional heads is most surprising, bearing in mind that the number four
is so often exploited in both Egyptian religion and magic. This area should
therefore not be considered to merely represent a simple visualisation
of previous emanations of the souls of god revealing themselves as
the water /ba of Osiris, the earth/ba of Geb, the air/ba of Shu and the light/ba
of Chepri (Koenig 2011, 247-251). J. F. Quack (2006a, 177) has investigated two possible interpretations of the additional animal heads seen
in polymorphic depictions.
In the irst, he assesses the thoughts of S. Sauneron (1960, 284-285),
who proposed that the animal heads around Tutu’s head depict so-called
‘minor deities or demons’, which number seven in total (Goyon 1985,
184-188; Dasen 2013, 67). The brief analysis of Tutu and other polymorphic
214
G. First
depictions conducted by O. Kaper (2003, 97-99) allows us to immediately
reject this hypothesis, since the number of heads usually numbers eight,
although it may also be (for instance) six. The additional heads may not be
the demons of Hormerti, the ‘Lord of Messengers’, but could perhaps be
the deities and souls (ba) of the holy site of Pharbaithos (Shedenu)
in the eastern Delta (Gourlay 1979, 363-380). This explanation, which
is more well-founded in Tutu’s case, is too limited to have necessitated
the development of polymorphic iconography and is also not relected
in sources from other areas.
The second interpretation proposes that the animal heads symbolised
the transfer of animal powers to the deity (Quaegebeur 1985, 131-143),
who would thus be able to take on speciic, typical animal features in order
to play a part in many areas of life. This hypothesis appears incredibly
straightforward and is thus diicult to contradict or criticise. Polymorphic
igures have unquestionably acquired animal features, but it is also clear that
the theriomorphic elements contained within them are generally symbolic.
It must be remembered that in Egyptian religion, an animal not only
represented the presence, power and features of deities, but also the complex
system of their emanating souls, which revealed itself in the entire shape
of the animal.
S. Michel (2002, 11-12) has provided a completely diferent suggestion
for pantheos igures. In her understanding, the additional heads symbolise
the twelve shapes of the solar deity, which together form ‘dodekaoros’,
the constellation of twelve hours that makes up the zodiac. However,
the problem of the precise number of additional heads again appears,
as a igure possessing twelve heads is only an occasional variant amongst
polymorphic igures.
It would therefore seem that the number of additional heads should not
guide our interpretation of their symbolism. However, it must be stated here
that later magical ideas and associations pertaining to the Nine-ShapedOne (recorded on Greek papyri and other sources) are well-grounded
and clearly do relate to the polymorphic igure’s meaning. The freedom
of the positioning of head location should also be mentioned. In twodimensional depictions, the heads can be located either around the central
head or above it in the crown. Additionally, some depictions have clearly had
their heads symbolically drafted in a manner that suggests that it is only their
presence and uniform size that counts and not the species. We thus arrive
at the next important point to be made in this analysis, namely that there
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215
appears to have been no unambiguous rules which governed the location
of additional heads, the type of central head, the type of object upon which
the depiction appeared or the species of animal used. The heads discovered
thus far appear not to have been positioned according to an ordained pattern,
although the possibility cannot be excluded that one may have existed that
has not yet been identiied.
However, it is possible to identify the species of animal which occurred
most often. They could appear a maximum of twice in one representation,
although such double variants are fairly rare. The eight most commonly
identiied animals are the falcon, the lion, the ram, the cat, the baboon,
the crocodile, the bull and the dog/jackal, although it is diicult to ‘rank’
these animals according to the frequency of their occurrence. This is due
to the poor condition of some of the igures, unclear head shapes, the often
schematic nature of the depictions, the similarity of some of the species
to each other (e.g. dog/jackal or cat/lion) and the fact that only slight
diferences exist between the quantities of certain animal types. Other
animals which occur sporadically are the hippopotamus, the snake, the goose
and the scarab.
The composition of the list of animals that occurred most frequently
constitutes an important insight into Egyptian religion. It contains the species
most important in the representation of the various deities and ideas and also
provides an indication that the sets of additional heads should be treated
as a collection that on the one hand is varied, but on the other is complete.
Looking at the matter from this point of view, it can be assumed that the animals
were always of identical size and without internal hierarchy or common
repetition in order to symbolise the ‘completeness’ of the deity (Seyring
1935, 197-202). However, this ‘completeness’ (or the internal completion
/closure of the deity’s essence to encompass their many powers, features
and characteristics) cannot be identiied with pantheism. A comparison
to universalism is more reasonable. Referring to the ‘completeness’
of the deity nevertheless seems to be the most convenient interpretation
(Assmann 1979, 7-42; Assmann 2001, 230-244). This is shown by
the presence of symbolic animal heads, which constituted a depiction
of the ba of the ‘Hidden One’. The animals are earthly emanations
of the ba of the ‘Hidden One’, who reveals himself within the everyday
world under the guise of creatures. The depiction of this deity as a universal
being could have a great impact on the study of many related issues and
could also be a reference point for the investigation of magical or healing
practices.
216
G. First
Even a very brief overview of the animals present in polymorphic
iconography allows us to observe that it is dominated in particular by animals
related to the solar circle (Malaise 1990, 680-729). The circle of Horus
and his multiple ‘warrior’ forms can also be seen. Here, the solar aspect
of the deity is undoubtedly connected to his universal aspect and emphasises
the power and richness of his inluence. The additional heads may thus
be interpreted as a manifestation of the power of the god, his completeness,
ininity, multiplicity and plenty (Koch 1993, 551-552). The solar inluence
is visible and as strong as the sun (Amun-Ra, Atum) in Egyptian religion.
It expresses the full and complete nature of immensity and the concept
of the unlimited. Another interesting observation can be made based mainly
on the analysis of pantheos iconography on gems, as well as on some earlier
amulets. Here, the schematic additional heads around the central head create
something akin to beams and together resemble a halo composed of the sun’s
rays. This association may of course be the result of more recent associations
with depictions of deities with halos from classical civilisations. However,
it is worth noting that the schematic depiction of heads and their small size
(in particular on the gems) may indicate more of a protective role and be
a sign of their inluence radiating out onto the external world in a similar
manner to the classical halo (compare with the iconography of Helios:
Fauth 1995).
conclusions
The diversity of polymorphic representations poses a great challenge
in the search for an unambiguous interpretation of their meaning. The most
consistent interpretation is that polymorphic images are a means of depicting
the solar and secret aspects of a particular deity. This is especially visible
in the Late period and Graeco-Roman times, when there was a strong
tendency towards the universalisation and simpliication of religious
messages. The attributes of particular deities used in constructing
polymorphic representations were mainly those which played an essential role
in the Cult of the Sun and their meaning would have been clear and coherent
to people at the time (vos 1999, 119-124; Quirke 2001, 25-27). A polymorphic
representation may also be interpreted as a manifestation of divine presence
in everyday life. Symbols of a deity’s multiplicity, revealed in the ba
of the ‘Hidden One’, can also be observed in this type of image. The strong
animal symbolism visible in these representations conirms the belief that
divine care was aforded to humans in both a personal and oicial context.
Polycephaly - some remarks on the multi-headed nature...
217
This personal care can be seen in the preventative magical functionality
of certain representations, which is visible in the pantheos gems from
the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD.
After comparing the possible interpretations of additional heads,
the most important element in the construction of polymorphic iconography
seems to be that it depicted the completeness, variety and multiplicity
of the particular deity, including their numerous ba. In this way,
a universal being was created that could have inluence in an unending way.
The animals symbolised the diferent powers of each of the ba and emphasised
both the solar and ‘combative’ nature of the igure. Considered from a visual
standpoint, the additional heads also greatly contribute to the signiicance
of the whole polymorphic igure, although the fact that other elements enrich
this message should not be forgotten (Kaper 2003, 91-99).
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S T U D I E S I N A N C I E N T A RT A N D C I v I L I Z AT I O N 18
Kraków 2014
Maxim Kupreyev
Berlin
THE ORIGINS ANd dEVELOPMENT
OF THE dEFINITE ARTICLE
IN EGYPTIAN-COPTIC
Abstract: The irst appearance of the emphatic demonstratives
pA/tA/nA in northern Egyptian letters of the 6th Dynasty and their absence
from southern Egyptian sources indicates the growing diference between
the language variants spoken in these broadly deined regions. Originating
from the Old Egyptian pronominal stems p-/t-/n-, the use of these new
demonstratives expands rapidly during the Middle Kingdom. In their weak
form as deinite articles, they indicate that a noun is known in discourse
and thus signal a hitherto hidden grammatical category – deiniteness. Once
the deinite article is grammaticalised and starts to be used with a priori
deinite nouns such as pA nTr wa ‘the sole god’ or pA HqA ‘the ruler’ (18th
Dynasty), the indeinite article appears. The further development in Demotic
and Coptic shows that the article was on the way to becoming a noun marker.
When attached to a relative phrase, it created a new noun, which could
be further determined (xenpetnanouf ‘some good deeds’, ppetouaab
‘the saint’). The following article traces the regional origins of the deinite
article as well as the main principles governing their development.
Keywords: Deiniteness; deinite, indeinite and zero article; noun
categories; speciic and generic nouns; Egyptian-Coptic; northern Egyptian
dialect; diachrony and linguistic topology
introduction
The emergence of the deinite article is the most prominent indicator
of the dramatic shift from older ‘synthetic’ to younger ‘analytic’ forms
DOI: 10.12797/SAAC.18.2014.18.14
224
M. Kupreyev
in the Egyptian language. The article not only expresses the new grammatical
category of deiniteness, it also takes over the categories of number and
gender, which were earlier carried by the noun stem itself. Its siblings are
a new set of demonstrative pronouns pAy/tAy/nAy, possessives pAy=/tAy=
/nAy= and pA/tA/nA n ‘he, she, they of’. bi- and tripartite nominal clauses are
now built with the new demonstratives instead of pw. In Sahidic Coptic,
these forms include long and short variants for articles and clitic and nonclitic variants for demonstratives (Till 1955, 59, 97; Ernstedt 1986, 119-120;
Layton 2004, 44, 48).1
Although the role of the productive base pA/tA/nA in Late Egyptian is
clear, the functioning of the article is still open to question. Some doubt
has been expressed as to whether the article is really a grammatical tool,
since ‘the function of tools is to achieve some speciic end. That is precisely
what, in many cases, the article does not do, or at all events does only
in a very slight and uncertain degree. Often it is mere useless ballast, a habit
or mannerism accepted by an entire speaking community’ (Gardiner 1963,
47).
The irregularities of article usage are encountered by any student
of German, English or French. Generic nouns (i.e. nouns referring to kinds
instead of concrete objects [bussmann and Gerstner-Link 2008, 225]),
can be used in German with deinite or indeinite articles without a substantial
change in meaning:
1. Die Tannen sind Nadelbäume.
Die Tanne ist ein Nadelbaum.
Eine Tanne ist ein Nadelbaum.
The plural form is used without the article:
2. Tannen sind Nadelbäume.
* Tanne ist Nadelbaum (Grimm 1987, 46).
German can place deinite articles in front of proper names
(e.g. der Peter), which is not possible in English or French. The usage
of the indeinite article in Coptic with abstract and mass nouns in both
singular and plural forms is also confusing: ouxote ‘fear’ (sg.), oumoou
‘water’ (sg.), xenaf ‘meat’ (pl.).
Although from the ‘synchronic’ perspective of the non-native speaker,
many such cases do not make sense, their ‘historic original was properly
1
Articles: p--/t-/N- (short) vs pe-/te-/ne- (long, e.g. before consonantal cluster: tesxime).
Demonstratives: pei.---/tei-./nei.- (clitic) vs pai/tai/nai (non-clitic). ‘Afected’ demonstratives
pi./+-./ni.- also have non-clitic variants ph/th/nh.. both Till and Layton call clitic forms
‘articles’.
The origins and development of the deinite article...
225
motivated and purposeful’ (Gardiner 1963, 47). The goal of this article is thus
to uncover the origins of articles in Egyptian and to trace the development
of their forms over a period of approximately 3000 years.2
The northern Egyptian origins of the deinite article
The origins of the deinite article lie in a dialectal drift which occurred
between the language varieties spoken in the South and North of Egypt.
Due to the scarcity of source material, we can only trace these changes from
the 6th Dynasty of the Old Kingdom onwards. However, the Abusir Papyri
display the weakened version of the Old Egyptian demonstratives tw/tn/tf
in front of the noun as early as the 5th Dynasty:
3. t nt Snwt [...]
‘This is belonging to the granary [...]’ (P. Cairo 602, frame II = PosenerKriéger 1968).
by roughly subdividing the colloquial sources available from
the 6th Dynasty into ‘southern Egyptian’ and ‘northern Egyptian’, we can
observe substantial diferences in the usage of demonstrative pronouns.3
Despite their scarcity, the northern letters contain a variety of demonstratives,
ranging from the older series pw/tw/nw as dependent and independent
pronouns to the newer pn/tn/nn:
4. sxA nw Dd.n.k n Jrtj sA Yj
‘Remember this, which you have said to Irti’s son Ii’ (P. Cairo CG 25975
[Cairo linen], line 12 = Gardiner and Sethe 1928).
5. rp x[t] n ATwt.(j) tw
Xr.tj xsf.(w) sA n sj r nDrwt.f
‘The wood of this my bed will rot (?)
under the one, who removed the son of a man from his bed part’
(P. Cairo CG 25975 [Cairo linen], lines 3-4 = Gardiner and Sethe 1928).
6. sk hrw js pw wa xb.tw.f n TAst tn Hbs.tw.f
Starting with tomb inscriptions of the 6th Dynasty around 2300 bC and ending with
works of iction by Coptic Archimandrite Shenoute in the 5th century AD.
3
Southern sources include letters from Elephantine (P. Berlin 9010; P. Berlin 8869 [Crimes
of Sabni]; P. Turin CG 54002; P. Berlin 10523 [Bm], 10523 [Bn], 10523, 2+4 [Ab+Ad]; P.
Straßburg A, ba, bb, be&f, Ca, Cb, Ep); from balat in Dakhla Oasis (Tablet 3686; Tablet
4965); from Qubbet el-Hawa near Assuan (A letter to Harkhuf by Pepi II in tomb A 8) and
from Naga ed Deir (Naga ed Deir MFA 04.2059; Naga ed Deir 3500; Naga ed Deir 3737).
There are very few nothern sources. These comprise four letters from Saqqara (P. Cairo JE
49623; P. Cairo JE 52001A, b, C; P. Cairo CG 58043 = P. Boulaq 8; P. Cairo CG 25975 =
Cairo linen).
2
226
M. Kupreyev
‘And it is one day, which is wasted for this battalion, when it is given
clothes’4 (P. Cairo JE 49623, lines 6-7 = Gardiner 1927).
In letters of the 1st Intermediate period, the old demonstratives peacefully
coexist with Late Egyptian forms, both preceding the noun:
7. mk grt jpty bAk.ty rd.yt nqm sny
nfr-Tn-tt jTAj shA st
‘behold, those two the serving-maids, who have caused Seny to sufer,
Nefertjentet and Itjai, let them fall’ (Oriental Museum Chicago Letter
13945, line 5 = Gardiner 1930).
8. mk grt jn.tw tA mnTAt jrt mwt.k wDa mdw Hr.s
‘behold, there is brought (to you) this vessel in respect of which your
mother is to make litigation’ (Oriental Museum Chicago Letter 13945, line
3 = Gardiner 1930).
The process occurring in the south is very diferent and can be
described as a quantitative and qualitative selection applied to the form
of demonstratives and their position. Firstly, although the number of attested
6th Dynasty sources in Upper Egypt is much bigger, we do not come across
any archaic forms such as tw or jpty and the range of pronouns is restricted
to pn/tn/nn. Secondly, once again in stark contrast to the Lower Egyptian
dialect, their position becomes ixed behind the noun. Pronouns also retain
their full form and nothing suggests their weakening:
9. sk smr waty sn-k.w jy.(w) r spAt tn
‘Now the sole companion Senkaw has come to this nome’ (P. Turin CG
54002, lines 11-12 = Roccati 1968).
Independent usage is exclusively reserved for the neutral demonstrative
nn:
10. jr swt wnn jr sXAw.k nn r sD aHA[...]
mAA rf sn.k jm m mrr rf sXAw.[k]
HAty-a xtm.tj-bjtj [...] sAbnj r sn.k jm
‘If it will be the case, that you (lit. ‘your scribe’) have done this to break
up the ighting [...],
then I (lit. ‘your brother there’) shall see whether you love
the nomarch, the sealer of the king [...] Sabni more than me’ (P. Berlin
8869, lines 5-8 [Crimes of Sabni] = Smither 1942).
Southern sources provide two notable exceptions to the pattern outlined.
The irst comes from a letter of Pepi II to Harkhuf, found in the tomb
of the latter in Qubbet el-Hawa (Asswan). It contains independent usage
4
Lit. ‘A day it is, one, it is wasted for this battalion, as it is clothed.’
The origins and development of the deinite article...
227
of nf, and pw following the noun. These can be considered as traces
of the northern dialect:
11. jn jw mj nf jry n smr-waty Hr-xw.f
‘Is there (anything) like this, which was done to the sole companion
Harkhuf?’ (Qubbet el-Hawa, Grab A 8 = Eichler 1991, 153, line 13).
12. s(j)p sp 10 n grH mrj Hm.j mAA
dng pw r jnw bjA pwnt
‘Check 10 times at night, because my majesty really wants to see this
dwarf, more than the tribute of Sinai and Punt’ (Qubbet el-Hawa, Grab A 8
= Eichler 1991, 153, lines 20-21).
The fact that the cited passages occur in the direct speech of the king
ofers an explanation of the phenomenon. The language here represents
the actual dialect spoken in his residence (Memphis). A similar stylistic
device is later attested in the Kamose Stela and the Kanais Decree of Sethos
I, in which the Late Egyptian of the king’s speech stands out from the Middle
Egyptian of the narration (Jansen-Winkeln 2011, 168).
Another evidence refuting the northern origin of the new demonstrative
series pA/tA/nA is provided by inscriptions from the tombs of Tjauti (§Awtj)
and Idu (Jdw) in Kasr el-Sayed of the seventh Upper Egyptian nome.5
The tombs of the two nomarchs from the reign of Pepi II bear three examples
of new demonstratives. They are found in the Reden und Rufen – inscriptions,
which accompany scenes taken from daily life.
13. dj n.j pA nty Hr nDrt mnt
‘Give (it) to me, you, holding the haunch’ (The tomb of §Awtj, Kasr
el-Sayed = Säve-Söderbergh 1994, pl. 26: lower register).
14. mk wj sxs.j Xr nA nty m a.j
‘See, I hurry up carrying this, which is in my hand’ (The tomb of §Awtj,
Kasr el-Sayed = Säve-Söderbergh 1994, pl. 26: upper register).
15. jrr.k nA r tm wnmw
‘This is what you should do for the one, who does not eat’ (The tomb
of Jdw, Kasr el-Sayed = Säve-Söderbergh 1994, pl.10: 3rd register).
This time it is not the multiple language registers hidden in the text,
but the layout and decoration of the tombs that can help solve the dialectal
riddle. Säve-Söderbergh (1994, 35) notes that ‘the style of decoration
difers from that typical for Upper Egyptian provincial tombs at many other
places. It is more elegant and the drawing of the lines is similar to that found
This place is famous due to the Coptic Gnostic library which was found there,
but was named after the main centre of the region, the town Nag Hammadi (Säve-Söderbergh
1994, 18).
5
228
M. Kupreyev
in the Teti cemetery (Mereruka, Kagemni, Khentika etc.) at Saqqara.’6
The architecture of the tombs has characteristics ‘which are only found
in the Upper Egyptian 6th Dynasty tombs at Dershashe, in a nome, which
is directly dependent on Memphis’ (Säve-Söderbergh 1994, 40). Moreover,
the titles linked with the royal pyramids indicate a ‘close relationship with
the capital’ (Säve-Söderbergh 1994, 40).
A more detailed investigation is required to prove that the rock tomb
inscriptions of Kasr el-Sayed were produced from templates created
in the north. However, we can note at this point that the later demonstrative
is in fact attested in one of the 6th Dynasty tombs of Giza:
16. jrr jb.<j> pA mrjj
‘Do me a favour, the beloved one’ (The tomb of KAj-m-anx, Giza =
Junker 1938, Abb. 9: 2nd register).
The northern origin of the new demonstrative series pA/tA/nA helps
to establish the location of the addressee of another important document –
the Heqanakht Letters. These papyri have been dated to a 30 year period split
between the reigns of Mentuhotep III of the 11th Dynasty and Sesostris I
of the 12th Dynasty, although archaeological evidence strongly supports
them being from the latter monarch’s reign (Allen 2002, 130). Found
in Thebes, the letters have Lower Egyptian features as demonstratives are
represented exclusively by the newer set of pA/tA/nA. The only case in which
pn is used is a fossilised expression in an oath:
17. anx n.j sj pn Dd.j r Jp
‘As this man lives for me – I speak of Ip’ (Heqanakht Letter 2, 40-41 =
Allen 2002, pl. 6a)
This evidence supports Allen’s (2002, 121) conclusion, shared by brose
(2014, 13), that Heqanakht’s home region of Nbsyt, where the letters were
intended to be sent, was located in the area around Memphis.
To sum up, the deinite article developed around the 5th to 6th Dynasty
from the Old Egyptian pronominal stem p-/t-, which retained its independent
character in the northern Egyptian dialect. It could be weakened when placed
in front of the noun and was probably strengthened by another element such
as the locative adverb aAy ‘here’. A similar process is attested later in Coptic
for the ‘farther’ demonstratives: petMmau – ‘this one (there)’.
Aditionally, the scene of a cow being killed by allowing it to bleed to death inds its only
parallel in the tomb of Ti (Saqqara) (Säve-Söderbergh 1994, 49).
6
The origins and development of the deinite article...
229
The pattern of deinite article expansion: from common to unique
nouns
As outlined above, the origins of the deinite article lie in the emphatic
demonstrative, which can sometimes be translated as a vocative:
18. dj n.j pA nty Hr nDrt mnt
‘Give (it) to me, you (“the one there”), holding the haunch’ (The tomb
of §Awtj, Kasr el-Sayed = Säve-Söderbergh 1994, pl. 26: lower register).
The more often it is used, the more it loses its original demonstrative
/deictic nature: ‘the point, at which a discourse deictic becomes a deinite
article is where it becomes compulsory and has spread to the point at which
it means “identiied” in general, thus including typically things known from
context, general knowledge, or as with “the sun” in non-scientiic discourse,
identiied because it is the only member of its class’ (Greenberg 1978, 62).
The process of article expansion into diferent semantic categories will
be outlined in this chapter. The article originally accompanies common
nouns, both mass and abstract, but then gradually penetrates the semantic
ields of proper/unique nouns. Unique nouns refer to solitary objects
and do not need a demonstrative to be correctly identiied by the addressee
(e.g. the moon, proper names and body parts). As it spreads through
the language, the article gradually ‘conquers’ all the semantic ields moving
from the ‘less unique’ to the ‘more unique’ (Kroeber 1970, 7f). This process
can be described as follows:
Early Middle Kingdom7
Noun categories:
1. Common nouns (objects): pA S ‘the farm’, pA aqw ‘the rations’, pA dAjw
‘the cloth’, pA pr ‘the house’, tA wsx.t ‘the barge’, pA Ss ‘the letter’, pA jt-mH
‘the barley’, pA msw 5 ‘the 5 children’, tA bAkt nt pr ¤nn ‘the servant ¤nn’, pA
wab Nxt ‘the wab-priest Nxt’.
2. Common nouns (events): pA rdt jwt ‘that sending’, pA jrt bjnw ‘that
doing evil’, pA hAb ‘that writing’.
3. Geographic terms: pA rsy ‘this south’.
4. Divisions of time: pA hrw ‘this day (today)’.
Middle Kingdom8
During the Middle Kingdom, article usage expands in existing categories,
Sources include, e.g. Ḥeqanakht Letters: 11th-12th Dynasties, Mentuhotep III/Sesostris I.
Sources include P. Kahun and P. Gurob, P. Brooklyn 351446: 12th-13th Dynasties,
Semnah Dispatches: 12th Dynasty, P. Boulaq 18: 13th Dynasty.
7
8
230
M. Kupreyev
such as geographic terms and divisions of time, and embraces new areas,
such as higher titles.
Noun categories:
1. Common nouns (objects): pA kA ‘the bull’, tA jmy.t-pr ‘the testament’,
nA n MDAy ‘these Medjay’, pA aAm 4 ‘the 4 Asiatics’.
2. Common nouns (events): pA tkk ‘the violation’.
3. Geographic terms: tA xAst ‘the desert’, pA aD ‘the desert-edge’.
4. Divisions of time: tA At ‘this moment’, tA rnp.t ‘this year’, pA mSrw
‘this evening’, pA Hb ‘this festival’.
Additionally:
5. Temple and civil titles: pA wab-njswt ‘the wab-priest of the king’, pA
Ss Hrj xtm Yj-m-ja.t-jb ‘the scribe in charge of the seal Yj-m-ja.t-jb’, pA jdnw
n jmy-rA sDAwty Jmny ‘the deputy of the treasurer Jmny’, tA wnwt Hwt-nTr
‘the priesthood of the temple’, pA HAtj-a Jwny Qn-Jmy ‘the mayor of Armant
Qn-Jmy’, tA Hw.t-nTr ‘the temple’.
6. Numbers: pA 40 ‘that 40’, pA ½ ‘that ½’.
Although widely attested during the Middle Kingdom, pA was still
considered to be too colloquial, if not vulgar, for oicial language,
as the following quote from the stele of Mentuwoser (MnTw-Wsr) proves:
19. jnk mdw r rA-a srw
Swy m Ddw pAw
‘I am one who talks according to the style of nobleman,
free of saying pA.’ (Sethe 1960, 79, line 17).
One of the functions of the article in the sentence is deictic, meaning
it indicates something that is either 1. already known or 2. will be introduced
later. These two types of reference are called ‘anaphoric’ (backward)
and ‘cataphoric’ (forward) respectively. A ‘direct’ anaphora indicates
an object/action mentioned previously in the same text, e.g.:
20. aHa nxAw n mfk.t mA.t xr Hr mw [...]
gm.n.f pA nxAw wAH Hr pA qy.t
‘And a pendant of new turquoise fell into the water [...]
He found the pendant lying on a shard’ (P. Westcar 5,16-5,17; 6,9-6,10
= blackman 1988).
An ‘indirect’ anaphora indicates common knowledge shared by
the listener and the speaker, e.g. pA HqA ‘the ruler’. The literary texts
of this period show that anaphoric function can also be expressed using
Middle Egyptian demonstrative pronouns. In the following example, sxty
‘peasant’ is irst introduced as an indeinite ‘bare’ noun and all the following
attestations are accompanied by pn:
The origins and development of the deinite article...
231
21. s pw wn #w-n-jnpw rn.f
sxty pw n Cxt-HmAt
jst wn Hmt.f [M]rt rn.s
[...]Dd jn sxty pn n Hmt.f tn
‘There was a man named Khun-Anup,
a peasant of Salt-Field.
He had a wife whose name was [M]arye. [...]
Said this peasant to his wife’ (Eloquent peasant R 1.1-1.2, 1.5 =
Parkinson 1991).
Another Middle Kingdom document, the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus,
utilizes both old (pn) and new (pA) forms in the same passage for anaphoric
reference:
22. Question:
SAa hA.n sSr r.f m HqAt NN pty rxt.f
‘A container, into which corn has gone to the amount of NN HqAt. What
are its dimensions?’
Answer 1:
nj-sw 10 r 10 r 31/3 pA SAa [...]
‘It is 10 by 10 by 3 1/3, the container [...]’
Answer 2:
xpr xr SAa pn m mH 10 r 10 r 3 1/3
mjtt pw
‘this container proves to be of 10 cubits by 10 by 3 1/3.
That is the same’ (P. Rhind Mathem PL. N, 46 = Peet 1923).
2nd Intermediate period and Amarna9
During the 2nd Intermediate period, the process of article expansion
comes to an end in colloquial speech as it embraces unique nouns such as
‘ruler’, terms of kingship such as ‘son’ and body parts used metaphorically.
Noun categories:
1. Titles: pA wab ‘the wab-priest’, tA qnbt nt srw ‘court of magistrates’.
2. Geographic terms: pA tA 2 ‘the two lands’, pA w n Nf[rw-sy] m hAj
‘the region of Nef[rusi]’, pA tA ‘the land’, pA w n jnpwt ‘the Cynopolite Nome’,
nA n dmjw n tA kmt ‘the towns of Egypt’.
3. Unique nouns: pA HqA ‘the ruler’, pA nsw ¢wfw ‘the King Khufu’,
pA jb ‘this mood’ (lit. ‘heart’).
In Amarna, we can see that the new demonstratives have been oicially
introduced into literary and state texts, as evidenced by the Great Hymn and
9
Sources include P. Westcar, Kamose Stela (FIP) and P. Mond 1 and 2, Great Hymn,
Boundary Stelae, P. Gurob (Amarna).
M. Kupreyev
232
the Boundary Stelae. They all use deinite articles with unique nouns: pA Ra
‘Re’, pA Jtn anx ‘the livingAton’, pA nTr wa ‘the sole God’, pA nb nHH ‘the lord
of eternity’, pA Jtn ‘Aten’, pA nTr aA ‘the great god’, tA Hmt nswt wrt ‘the great
king’s wife’, pA nTr ‘the god’, pA Sw ‘the sun’.
Although the diference between the unstressed (pA, article) and stressed
(pAy, pronoun) variants of the new demonstrative was already visible
in writing during the Middle Kingdom (e.g. jrj.n.st tAy ‘had done [made]
this’ [Semnah Dispatches, pl. IIa, 2 = Smither 1945]), it is not until the
18th Dynasty that documents (e.g. Thutmosid Letters) begin to consistently
distinguish the two variants:
23. Ss jaH-msw pAy Pnjt
‘The scribe Aachmose, the man (this one) of Peniati’(P. BM 10102,
Recto, 1-2 = Glanville 1928).
The full form, written pAy, thus reveals its possible origin as a combination
of the weakened stem p- with an adverbial of place aAy ‘here’, which
is attested ive times in Heqanakht papers alone.
Speciic and generic nouns
As the deinite article gradually became grammaticalised from
the end of the 2nd Intermediate period to the beginning of the New Kingdom,
another important event was also occurring. The numeral wa ‘one’ acquired
an additional meaning as an indeinite article. This process probably started
as early as the Middle Kingdom, but its irst attestations date back to the 2nd
Intermediate period:
24. jmj Dj n.j wa n qAqAw
‘Let me be given a ship’ (P. Westcar 8, 3 = blackman 1988).
The arrival of the indeinite article is an important moment in the history
of the Egyptian language. It enabled the formal division of common nouns into
two groups according to the meaning expressed in the context: 1. ‘speciic’
ones – denoting a particular object or event and marked by the deinite
or indeinite article and 2. ‘generic’ ones – referring to a class of objects,
but not to any one in particular, marked by a ‘zero article’ (meaningful article
absence).10 Nouns can obtain a generic meaning in two ways:
1. Through pragmatic meaning of the utterance they are used in.
Deinitions and general statements create a naturally generic environment.
As we have seen, certain unique and abstract nouns fall into one of the categories based
on their semantics. For example, proper names and body parts are overtly speciic and
originally rejected the deinite article, whereas abstract nouns are naturally generic.
10
The origins and development of the deinite article...
233
2. Through the syntax of the construction the noun is used in. The direct
objects of compound verbs are often generic.
The irst category (pragmatic generic nouns) is less resistant to
the article. This can be seen in Demotic, in which speciic nouns in generic
patterns can be used with or without an article:
25. xr tj rmT nb xpr nk rmT-rx pA nt rx arD.f
‘All men acquire property; a wise man is the one who knows how
to conserve it’ (‘Onch-Sheshonqi 13/9 = Glanville 1955).
26. xr jr.w btw n rmT-rx r-DbA sHm.t jw mr.f s
‘Wrongdoing is done to a wise man because of a woman whom
he loves’ (P. Insinger 7/11 = Lexa 1926).
27. xr xpr tA wp.t n pA sSl n pA rmT-rx r-DbA krf
‘The work of the devil happens to the wise man through cunning’
(P. Insinger 12/7 = Lexa 1926).
Generic environments created through syntax are more immune
to articles. They remain remarkably constant across Late Egyptian, Demotic
and Coptic and can be summarized as follows:
1. Predication of a general characteristic:
jw.f m hAj m-dj tAy.f snt Sr[jt]
‘He being the husband of his younger sister’ (Černý 1975, 71).
+o MMNtre
‘I am a witness’ (Till 1955, 64).
2. Prepositional phrases:
m mAa.t
‘in truth’ (Černý 1975, 72)
n qns/NqoNs
‘by force’ (Spiegelberg 1925, 32)
(H)r mr(.t)/emhr
‘on board’ (Spiegelberg 1925, 32)
¥a enex
‘till eternity’ (Till 1955, 64)
jinN ¥orP
‘from the beginning’ (Till 1955, 64)
3. Direct object of compound verbs:
jr Ht/R xote
‘to be afraid’ (Černý 1976, 299)
sDm xrw
‘to hear’ (Černý 1975, 72)
aS sgb/aS sgp/a¥qap
M. Kupreyev
234
‘to scream’ (Spiegelberg 1925, 32)
4. Negative expressions:
r-Dd bn sDm.j md.t
‘Saying “I will not hear anything”’ (Černý 1975, 72).
m-jr D mt.t jw bn jw pAy.s vA jn pAy
‘Don’t say a thing those time it is not’ (Johnson 1986, 78).
MpNß-¥ine Nsaeoou NtNrwme
‘We did not seek glory from any person’ (Layton 2004, 40).11
the article as a noun marker
Parallel to the gradual ‘conquest’ of the noun categories, the article also
took on another function as a nominaliser. When expanded by a relative
clause, the deinite article created new nouns, in which the initial pA/tA/nA,
p--/t-/N- were no longer understood as articles and could be preceded by
additional determiners (Ernstedt 1986, 166):
petouaab
‘saint’ (‘the-one-who-is-pure’)
Mpetouaab
‘the saints’
nefpetouaab
‘his saints’
oupetouaab
‘a saint’
xenpetouaab
‘some saints’
petnanouf
‘good thing’ (‘this-which-is-good’)
Mpekpetnanouf
‘his good deeds’
oupetnanouf
‘something good’
xenpetnanouf
‘some good deeds’
Such compounds were used as subjects in adverbial clauses preceded
by ouN ‘there is’ and mN/MmN ‘there is not’, which marks them
as undetermined. This rule holds true in both Coptic and Demotic:
28. mN petxobS
11
Note that it is also a prepositional phrase and therefore falls into category 1.
The origins and development of the deinite article...
235
‘There is nothing hidden’ (Till 1955, 236).
mn pA nt hwS r pA aA r-r.f
jw bn jw mtw.f pA nt hwS.v jn
‘There does not exist the one, who (can) abuse his superior,
while he (himself) is not the one, who is abused’ (Johnson 1986, 90).
The nominalising function of the deinite article was already present
during the New Kingdom. Late Egyptian phrases of the ‘article + relative
phrase’ type could be accompanied by the determiner nb ‘all’, ‘every’. With
regular nouns, nb and the deinite article were mutually exclusive:
29. jr pA prj nb m r.j m tA-HAt
‘As for everything which I have said (lit. “which came out of my mouth”)
before’ (Černý 1975, 82).
The process of article development for over 3000 years illustrated above
roughly corresponds to the stages outlined by Joseph Greenberg (1978)
in his article How does a language acquire gender markers? According
to Greenberg, the article started its life as a demonstrative pronoun and
proceeded through the following stages:
Stage I: deinite article
Stage II: non-generic article (speciic)
Stage III: noun marker
On the basis of Egyptian material, we can see that by the New Kingdom
articles have embraced most noun categories. The only group of nouns
‘consistently’ resisting the article are the names of body parts, which also take
synthetic possessives (Ernstedt 1986, 138). Generic pragmatic and syntactic
environments, initially also immune to articles, start to display lexibility in
Coptic. The article gradually moves towards becoming a nominal marker, as
shown by its ability to nominalise relative phrases, just as the endings t (f.)
/w (pl.) in the earlier stages of Egyptian marked nominalized verbal forms
(ininitives, relative forms and participles).12 In Coptic, the only ‘reliable’
markers of gender and number are articles, although gender marking on the
noun stem is still a productive mechanism, as shown in words borrowed
later: qamoul/qamaule (Copt. ‘camel’), compare with Arabic
12
E.g. jrt (‘to do’, ininitive of 3ae inf. verb), jrt.n.f (‘this which he has done’ - relative form
of the past), jryt (‘this which has been done’ - perfective passive participle).
236
M. Kupreyev
references
Allen J. P. 2002. The Heqanakht Papyri. New York.
blackman A. m. 1988. The Story of King Kheops and the Magicians:
Transcribed from Papyrus Westcar (Berlin Papyrus 3033). Reading.
Brose M. 2014. Grammatik der dokumentarischen Texte des Mittleren
Reiches. Widmaier.
Bussmann H. and Gerstner-Link C. 2008. Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft. Stuttgart.
Černý J. 1975. A Late Egyptian Grammar. Rome.
Černý J. 1976. Coptic Etymological Dictionary. Cambridge.
eichler e. 1991. Untersuchungen zu den Königsbriefen des Alten Reiches.
SAK 18, 141-171.
Ernstedt P. V. 1986. Исследования по грамматике коптского языка.
Moscow.
Gardiner A. H. 1927. An administrative letter of protest. JEA 13, 75-78.
Gardiner A. H. 1930. A new letter to the dead. JEA 16, 19-22.
Gardiner A. H. 1963. The Theory of Speech and Language. Oxford.
Gardiner A. H. and Sethe K. 1928. Egyptian Letters to the Dead.
London.
Glanville S. R. K. 1928. The letters of Aaḥmōse of Peniati. JEA 14,
294-312.
Glanville s. r. K. 1955. The Instructions of Onchsheshonqy (British
Museum Papyrus 10508). London.
Greenberg J. H. 1978. How does a language acquire gender markers.
In J. H. Greenberg and E. S. Andersen (eds), Universals of Human
Language. Stanford, vol. 4, 47-82.
Grimm H.-J. 1987. Lexikon zum Artikelgebrauch. Leipzig.
Jansen-Winkeln K. 2011. Sprachgeschichte und Textdatierung. SAK 40,
155-179.
Johnson J. H. 1986. Thus Wrote ‘Onchsheshonqy: an Introductory
Grammar of Demotic. Chicago.
Junker H. 1938. Ĝza. Bericht über die von der Akademie der
Wissenschaften in Wien auf gemeinsame Kosten mit Dr. Wilhelm
Pelizaeus unternommenen Grabungen auf dem Friedhof des Alten
Reiches bei den Pyramiden von Ĝza. Wien.
Kroeber b. 1970. Die Neuägyptizismen vor der Amarnazeit. Tübingen.
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Layton B. 2004. A Coptic Grammar: with Chrestomathy and Glossary:
Sahidic Dialect. Wiesbaden. (2nd ed., rev. and expanded with an index
of citations).
Lexa F. 1926. Papyrus Insinger, les enseignements moraux d’un scribe
égyptien du premier siècle après J. C. Paris.
Parkinson R. B. 1991. The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant. Oxford.
Peet T. E. 1923. The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, British Museum 10057
and 10058. Liverpool.
Posener-Kriéger P. 1968. The Abu Sir Papyri. London.
roccati A. 1968. Una lettera inedita dell’Antico Regno. JEA 54, 14-22.
Säve-Söderbergh T. 1994. The Old Kingdom Cemetery at Hamra Dom
(El-Qasr wa es-Saiyad). Stockholm.
sethe K. 1960. Ägyptische Lesestücke zum Gebrauch im akademischen
Unterricht. Hildesheim.
Smither P. C. 1942. An Old Kingdom letter concerning the crimes
of count Sabni. JEA 28, 16-19.
Smither P. C. 1945. The Semnah despatches. JEA 31, 3-10.
Spiegelberg W. 1925. Demotische Grammatik. Heidelberg.
Till W. C. 1955. Koptische Grammatik. Leipzig.
Maxim Kupreyev
Egyptological Seminar
Free University of berlin
maxim.kupreyev@fu-berlin.de
S T U D I E S I N A N C I E N T A RT A N D C I v I L I Z AT I O N 18
Kraków 2014
Wojciech Ejsmond, Łukasz Przewłocki
Warsaw
SOME REMARkS ON CAT MUMMIES
IN LIGHT OF THE EXAMINATION
OF ARTEFACTS FROM THE NATIONAL
MUSEUM IN WARSAW COLLECTION
Abstract: Votive mummies of cats were ofered at the shrines of particular
gods, to whom these animals were sacred. They played an important role
in Egyptian religion during the Late and Greco-Roman periods and represent
an important source on the popular beliefs and practices of ordinary Egyptians
at the twilight of their civilisation. For many years, this subject was neglected
and a large number of animal mummies were simply destroyed. However,
many specimens of unknown origin are still preserved in collections around
the world, which allows further research to be conducted upon them.
After the Second World War, the National Museum in Warsaw received
ive such artefacts. Their exact provenience, archaeological context and
the precise time of their execution is unknown. In April 2011, an x-ray
examination of the artefacts was conducted by Łukasz Przewłocki, Wojciech
Ejsmond (students at the Institute of Archaeology, Warsaw University) and
Dr. Monika Dolińska (curator of the Egyptian collection at the National
Museum in Warsaw).
This paper presents an interpretation of these objects in the wider
context of animal mummies and also provides a description of the results
of their recent examination. All the specimens can be dated to the GrecoRoman period (332 BC-AD 390) with the exception of one, which probably
dates to an earlier time. There are some unusual aspects to the group,
such as the presence of a human tooth in one specimen and traces
of restoration carried out at an unknown date in other one.
DOI: 10.12797/SAAC.18.2014.18.15
240
W. Ejsmond, Ł. Przewłocki
Keywords: Cat; mummies; animals; ancient Egypt; popular beliefs;
Greco-Roman period; National Museum in Warsaw
Animal mummies: a mixture of religion and magic
In ancient Egypt a deity was worshipped in its visible epiphany
as a cult image. These could be of various type, either inanimate (statues
or two-dimensional representations of deities, heavenly bodies, exceptionally
even objects) or live animals. An animal was chosen to act as a god’s image
for the period of its natural life because of its special external characteristics,
such as an unusual pattern of markings or special behaviour. It was unique
and when it died, it was buried as beitted its status and a successor
was selected. The role of animals in Egyptian religion was quite diferent
from zoolatry and to talk about the ‘deiication’ of cats would be misleading
(Malek 1993, 76).
Diferent methods of mummiication were used for animals and
the number of speciic species to be mummiied varied. In essence,
the scale of mummiication of a speciic animal depended on whether
it represented or was dedicated to a god whose cult was widespread.
The reasons for mummiication depended on the use of the animals. Salima
Ikram distinguished four main types of animal mummies: 1. food oferings
for the afterlife; 2. beloved pets, buried with their owners; 3. sacred animals,
recognised as a living incarnation of a special god, worshipped during their
lifetime, buried in an opulent way and, especially in later times; 4. votive
mummies of animals, dedicated as oferings at the shrines of speciic gods,
to whom these animals were sacred (Ikram and Iskander 2002, I-v; Ikram
2005a, 1-5).
Yet not all mummies conform to this division. Some mummies from
human cemeteries, for example the valley of the Kings, may not have been
pets, but instead had a cultic function or were dedicated to local divinities
(Ikram 2005a, 1).
The irst group consists of preserved meat, which was covered in simple
bandages and linen. It was intended to be food for the afterlife. Cats were
not mummiied as food and Egyptian sources do not mention that cats were
animals which were consumed.1 However they could have been beloved
pets or sacred animals, which were mummiied after their natural death.
All of the cats from the collection of the National Museum in Warsaw
S. Ikram (1995, 5) does not mention cats as animals which were consumed in ancient
Egypt in her list.
1
Some remarks on cat mummies...
241
were most probably killed, which means they were not sacred animals
or home pets, which were kept to the time of their natural death. The form
of the mummies is also modest, which conirms their votive function and
indicates mass production.
votive mummies are the most numerous of all of the groups discussed
above and a votive function is the most probable interpretation of the artefacts
from the museum. The meaning and function of votive mummies is unclear.
They are usually described as the remains of animals which lived in temples
and represented a sacred animal, but were not its main representatives,
or as votive oferings made to the gods beside their igures (Ikram 2003,
77-78). The votive mummy is generally identiied as an ofering consisting
of a speciic mummiied animal that was dedicated to its corresponding
divinity, so that the donor’s prayer would be addressed to the god throughout
eternity. Cats were principally ofered to the goddess bastet, who manifested
herself as a cat. They difered from sacred animals in that they were
not unique, since they lacked the special markings that identiied them
as a god’s incarnation. Instead, they acted as the mediators between a human
and a god. They were purchased and ofered by pilgrims at shrines dedicated
to the relevant gods (Martin 1981, 9; Ikram 2005a, 9). It is not known
whether they were bred in the place of their mummiication or if they were
imported from diferent areas of Egypt. They were placed in the temple areas
of the gods for whom they were intended as a gift (Ikram 2003, 77-78).
Such animals, for the purpose of votive oferings, are believed to have
been killed prior to their natural death. Many of the cat mummies discovered
at the bubasteion in Saqqara, as well as examples from the british Museum’s
collection, show that they were put to death at a young age (Ikram 2005a,
13; Zivie and Lichtenberg 2005, 114). Specimens from the british Museum
were killed either between the age of two to four months, or between nine
to 12 months (Armitage and Clutton-brock 1980). A similar situation was
noted with the mummies from balat, Saqqara and those kept in the Louvre
Museum (Summerield Estep 1995, 77). According to S. Ikram (2005a,
13), the cats were killed in one of two ways: 1. by breaking the neck
or 2. by smashing the skull with a blunt object, but a third option may also
be added: 3. strangulation (Zivie and Lichtenberg 2005, 114-117). Ikram
(2005a, 13) points out that this is inconsistent with the concept of the sanctity
of the animals devoted to the gods. It might be possible, however,
that the cats intended to be mummiied were not sacred until they were
mummiied and the rituals were completed. This would mean that any cat
242
W. Ejsmond, Ł. Przewłocki
would be suitable for the creation of a votive mummy, as it was the later
ritual that transformed the cat into a sacred votive object.
There is a theory that the animals were sacriiced during
the mummiication process, which would have involved the immersion
of the live animals in a vessel of boiling resin, bitumen or pitch (Ikram
2005b, 26; Nicholson 2005). However, there is no proof of this. There
is also no clue in Egyptian texts as to what form the death of these animals
took. The process of mummiication was dependent on the properties of their
anatomy. After evisceration, the cats were dried with natron and covered
in resin, applied either directly to the body or to the bandages (Pettigrew
1834, 214).
Another issue closely related to votive mummies is that of false mummies.
These included symbolic animal parts (sometimes of several quite diferent
animals) and even bandaged pieces of clay. A good example is the fake
crocodile burials discovered by Edme-François Jomard (see Pettigrew
1834, 214). In one instance, only the head was real and the rest of the body
was replaced by the stem of a palm tree, bandages and other materials.
Ikram (2003, 77-82) has explained this fact by stating that if it was diicult
to get the animal needed for mummiication, as was the case with most
birds of prey and other predators, the whole animal was represented by just
a part of its body. According to other theories, this type of mummy was
made by priests to cheat pilgrims (Ikram 2003, 90-94). Dieter Kessler and
Abd el Halim Nur el Din (2005, 156) meanwhile assume that fake
mummies could have honoured divine animals by preserving parts of
them found in nature or that they were simply a response to the problem
of answering the heavy demand for mummies.
However, the situation seems to have been far more complicated.
In mummies with the sketched heads of falcons in the Naparstek Museum
in Prague, the bones of diferent birds were found, including ibises,
members of another order (Hanzák 1977, 83). There is also a mummy
in the same collection (no. 2501) with the exterior form of a human child,
but radiological examination has proved that in fact an Abdim’s stork is inside
(Ciconia abdimii) (Hanzák 1977, 83, ig. 1).2 The combination of animal
parts inside a bundle varies from one example to another (Summerield
Estep 1995, 77). For example, D. Kessler and Abd el Halim Nur el Din
According to Ikram (2003, 90-94), the mummies of birds of prey were often confused
with the mummies of small babies due to their thick layer of bandages, which made
them resemble humans. In this case, the feet are clearly marked, so there is no doubt that
the mummy was intended to look like a man.
2
Some remarks on cat mummies...
243
(2005, 156) discovered a complete skeleton of a ish glued to two isolated
ibis heads. Another bundle contained parts of three cats, small parts of ish,
a bone of the glossy ibis, a skull of an ichneumon and birds of prey. There was
even a human rib in between the animal remains. According to the authors,
this may be due to the proximity of a human embalmer’s workshop to that
of the animal embalmer. According to Ikram (personal communication,
March 22, 2013), human remains inside animal mummies (and vice versa)
are not a rarity. It could be explained by the assumption that the same people
prepared both human and animal mummies in one workshop and that, during
drying in natron, certain parts may have become mixed up among the diferent
bodies. A human tooth was found in the bandages of one mummy from
the collection of the National Museum in Warsaw (see below).
The mummiication of many creatures in a single bundle seems to count
against the theory of supply problems or at least suggests that it should not
be taken as a general rule. It is also possible that embalmers once created
mummies on special request, for some reason putting diferent creatures and
their parts into one bundle. It was uneconomical to mummify more than
one animal in a bundle, so this practice must have had some signiicance,
probably religious or magical. In some cases, embalmers bandaged every
part of an animal that they could ind. They may have had poor knowledge
of human and animal osteology and therefore mistaken human and animal
bones and teeth. It is also true that the mummies were not intended to be
unrolled and that nobody checked their contents, so the embalmers could
have put practically anything or nothing at all inside.
It may therefore be concluded that there is no ixed rule according
to which the appearance of human parts in animal mummies and vice versa
can be explained. This is also the case for odd situations, such
as the child-shaped mummy containing an Abdim’s stork. If Ikram (personal
communication, March 22, 2013) is correct to believe that the presence
of human teeth and bones in animal mummies is not a part of a ritual
practice and that it is rather the fault of the embalmers’ incompetence,
this would mean that strong decomposition of bodies (as P. Gray suggests
[1966, 138]) occurred in workshops and that both animals and humans
were mummiied together. The child-shaped mummy of the bird and
the multiple-animal mummies suggest the existence of a ritual or magic
purpose for the creation of such objects, which would in turn mean that
the artefact composition was not accidental.
W. Ejsmond, Ł. Przewłocki
244
mass-scale devotion: cat mummies
The cat was one of the ‘protective animals’ in Egyptian religious beliefs.
Cat burials have been found at Mostagedda (in the tomb of a man, a cat lay
at his feet with some bones of a gazelle) (Summerield Estep 1995, 74) and
at the Predynastic elite cemetery (HK 6) in Hierakonpolis (Friedman 2011,
39). Small amulets representing cats may be dated to the late Old Kingdom
and the 1st Intermediate period, during which the relationship between man
and cat became closer (Malek 1993, 52). Depictions of domesticated cats
seem not to have been made before the times of the Middle Kingdom and
up until the New Kingdom these depictions remained rare (Malek 1993, 44).
At Abydos, W. M. F. Petrie (1925, 11) found a small tomb with a pyramidal
superstructure. In the cruciform chamber, there were 17 skeletons of cats and
nearby a row of small ofering pots dating to the 12th Dynasty, which might
have contained milk. This conirms the role of the cat in funerary beliefs.
The cat’s apotropaic qualities strengthened over time, which gave
it widespread respect and a prominent place in the personal religion
of ordinary people. The male cat became associated with the sun-god and
the complex beliefs concerning the sun’s night journey through
the underworld. An unexpected twist in history helped the cat in the early
1st millennium bC, when the city of bubastis (where basted represented
by cat was worshiped) provided some of the Egyptian rulers of the Late
period. It appears that the linking of the female cat with the goddess bastet
started at this time (Malek 1993, 73). During the Ptolemaic period, the cat’s
popularity reached its peak.
Popular religious beliefs possessed more vitality than the elaborate and
more abstract religious systems of the ruling class and these ideas were
therefore supported by a vast number of Egyptians. The personal devotion
of the opulent owners of decorated tombs was not the same as the religion
of the lower classes. The complex religious ideas expressed in the texts and
decoration of Egyptian tombs and temples were taken from an ideology
known only to the minority. Only the priests associated with these temples
would have been able to read the inscriptions and to see the images
of the divinities. The majority of people were not allowed beyond the temple’s
gate (Malek 1993, 73-74). It is natural to suspect that simpler, illiterate people
were looking for holiness in their surroundings, but it is hard to understand
their ‘logic’. The small number of texts referring to cats and cat mummies
in a religious context makes it diicult to understand the phenomenon.
Cats appear in magical and medical texts, in which their excrement,
Some remarks on cat mummies...
245
fat, hair etc. are used (Summerield Estep 1995, 74). As N. Summerield
Estep (1995, 84) wrote: ‘cat mummies were “magical devices used for a
variety of purposes”.’
The general method of shaping a mummy had two variants: 1. forming
a compressed cylindrical body and sometimes placing a cartonnage mask
on top or 2. preserving the natural shape of the animal. In the second case,
the body was placed in a cat-shaped sarcophagus (budge 1893, 356).
Cats were commonly mummiied during the Late and Greco-Roman
periods as votive oferings to a local goddess, who manifested herself
as a cat or a lioness. An important cult of a lioness goddess was that of Pakhet
at Speos Artemidos near beni Hassan (Malek 1993, 96-97). Thousands
of cat mummies have been excavated at sites such as bubastis, Saqqara
and Speos Artemidos, to name just the most celebrated cult centres. These
cats were also often accompanied by mummies of other species (Zivie and
Lichtenberg 2005, 107).
Pilgrims who visited temples during annual religious festivals may have
wished to pay for the mummiication and burial of a cat as a visible expression
of their piety (Malek 1993, 133-134). Death from natural causes could not be
predicted, so the deaths needed to be arranged out appropriately throughout
the year. A certain degree of clever and unoicial management would
therefore have been required to ensure that pious Egyptians who wanted
to display their religious feelings would not be disappointed. According
to J. Malek (1993, 133-134), the two age groups mentioned above may have
been selected, because the size of very young animals would have been most
suitable for the small containers in which they were buried. Furthermore,
the practice enabled the population of temple cats to be regulated. However,
numerous cases are known in which extra bandaging was applied to young
and small animals, in order to make them appear larger (see mummy 252 from
the National Museum in Warsaw below and Ginsburg 1999, 184; Ikram
2003, 92-94), so the size explanation seems unsatisfactory.
An alternative theory may, however, be more plausible. Small cats were
the product of two mating seasons a year3 and were killed once a year, most
I did not ind any speciic information on the reproduction of cats in Egypt or Northern
Africa, except for this short remark: ‘young of Felis chaus are born from January
to April’ (Osborn and Helmy 1980, 440). The mating season varies latitudinally and depends
on seasonal temperatures. Globally, most kittens are born from December to June,
but sometimes there is a second or even third litter later in a single year (Sundquist
and Sundquist 2002, 63). In India, as well as Eurasia, Felis chaus produces two litters
annually. In both zoological gardens and the wild, births are recorded in March-April and
August. Estrus lasts c. 60 days (Heptner and Sludskii 1992, 393). Felis libyca has kittens
3
246
W. Ejsmond, Ł. Przewłocki
likely to provide mummies for a single annual festival, during which pilgrims
came to the temples and bought animal mummies as votive oferings.
Kittens were born in two time intervals, from January to April and in August.
The killing took place from the end of September and lasted until the end
of December. After this, mummies were prepared in order to be ready
for sale in the winter and spring.
Examination of the specimens in the collection of the National
Museum in Warsaw
General description
both the provenance of the ive mummies and their state of preservation
when they became the property of the National Museum in Warsaw
are unknown. The specimens were given to the National Museum
at diferent times after 1949. Due to the complicated nature of the
country’s situation after the Second World War, it was diicult to ensure
that all the formalities related to new acquisitions of the museum were
observed. As a result, there is no information on their archaeological
context, place of origin, previous owners or on the dating of the artefacts.
In general, the manner in which animal mummies were bandaged
in the Late and Greco-Roman periods was very sophisticated on the surface,
but inside the situation was completely diferent. The artefacts were carefully
wrapped in resinated bandages, which formed geometrical patterns (except
for mummy inv. no. 252 MNW). In the upper part, they were made to
resemble the cat’s head, except for mummies inv. nos 252 MNW and 253
MNW, whose heads have not been preserved. The eyes, mouths and noses
were marked with black paint to portray the faces of the animals. X-ray
examination shows that three of the ive cats are more or less intact, but their
position is not natural. Their forepaws are extended along the trunk, and their
hind-legs are folded up along the abdomen. The tail has been pulled through
the hind-legs and rests on the belly. The mummies resemble a sort
of cylinder of bandages topped by a head, which is also wrapped and
provides a silhouette of the animal’s head.
from the irst litter from the end of April to May in Western Europe. The second litter arrives
from the end of July to early August and the third (in Scotland) from the end of November
to early December and also mid-January (Heptner and Sludskii 1992, 435). Felis libyca
rarely features in cat mummies (see below) and should therefore not be considered here.
Some remarks on cat mummies...
247
The attribution of the species of cats
Two species of cat were known in ancient Egypt. The African wild cat
(Felis silvestris libyca) measured about 60cm in length, had dark or yellowgray fur, a lightweight body construction and a long tail with two dark rings.
This species was only mummiied in rare cases. It is possible to recognise
the African wild cat by its size, but in the case of young cats it is very diicult
(Malek 1993, 22-24). The second recognised species is the swamp or jungle
cat (Felis chaus), bigger and heavier than the previous one, as it measures
about 65-75cm in length and weighs 3.5-6.5kg. It has long pointed ears and
a short tail. As the name suggests, the cat is especially fond of wetlands
and areas covered with reeds (Arnold 1995, 21). Amongst animal mummies,
a serval (Felis serval) is also sometimes found, but it is assumed that this
cat did not naturally occur in Egypt and was rather an imported species.
This was possible because of the role played by these animals and their
presence among spoils of war, such as the Ramesside list of Nubian tribute
(Malek 1993, 27).
It is very diicult to distinguish the African cat from the jungle cat
on a purely osteological basis,4 since there are signiicant variations within
each group at a similar level to the statistical diference between the two
species (Malek 1993, 26). Most preserved mummies are examples of very
young cats, which makes the situation even more problematic. It is therefore
sometimes impossible to distinguish the species. The general principle
of the individuality, contrariness and unpredictability of the cat is
demonstrated very well here.
Materials and method of examination
The fabric in which the mummies were wrapped had diferent thicknesses
and widths. The multiple braiding of the body was also diferent in each
case. As a result, it was necessary to obtain images in two registration
ranges (28kv [the end of soft x-ray radiation] and 30kv [the beginning
of hard x-ray radiation]) for better readability. These images were made
by Mr. Roman Stasiuk, a photographer from the Academy of Fine Arts
of Warsaw using a baltospot 100kv x-ray camera by balteau. He used
Fuji Medical X-Ray Super RX ilm for his work at the Department of
Conservation and Restoration of Works of Art of the Academy of Fine Arts
of Warsaw.
The fabric in which the mummies were wrapped was produced by
interlacing longitudinal (warp) and latitudinal (weft) threads. All the
4
See research and bibliography in Morrison-Scott 1952 and Ginsburg 1999.
248
W. Ejsmond, Ł. Przewłocki
artefacts were wrapped in diferent fabrics, which were mostly linen, but not
of the same type. They all have a diferent number of warp and weft threads,
which causes the density of the strands to vary. The number of warps ranges
from 10 to 18 and the number of threads from 24 to 50 in a square centimeter.
The bandages are cut-of strips of fabric and it is clear that their edges are
jagged.5
Individual mummies
The irst mummy from the collection of the National Museum in
Warsaw (252 MNW) is 22.3cm long and 7.6cm wide (Fig. 1). It was donated
by UNESCO in 1949. Information from the electronic catalogue inventory
of the museum (MONA) states: ‘an arm, without a hand, wrapped
in bandages’. The x-ray shows that the artefact does not contain any human
bone.
On the exterior, the mummy does not resemble the well-known standard
image of a cat mummy. It is also the least attractive of the group. On this
basis, we can conclude that it was either the least valuable in ancient times
or that it is the oldest of the group in question, which dates to a period when
animal mummy decoration was not very elaborate.
The exterior layer of the bandages was not resinated, but our preliminary
analysis shows that the original color was changed using pigments.6
In Fig. 2 a notably large hole can be seen in the bandages. Its centre is quite
dark and the material of the middle layer of bandages has the same colour.
It seems that this colouring originated from the setting of the liquid resin
that bound the bandages. This was done so that they would not unroll after
the mummiication process and so that the body would be better preserved.
The bandages of the irst layer that wrapped the body of the animal
were narrow, but each following layer increased in length all the way up
to the exterior layer.
The mummy does not have a head, which probably became detached
or was dropped in an accident. The shoulder bones can be seen inside
the mummy, upon which the head should be. In the left part of the x-ray
If the strips of the material were woven to be bandages for cat mummies or to respect
a previously set width, the edges should be smooth and simply completed (consultation with
Professor Helena Hryszko, a specialist on the reconstruction and conservation of fabrics,
Academy of Fine Arts of Warsaw).
6
The surface of the mummy contains diferent tones of light brown. According to Professor
Helena Hryszko, it seems that this colouring of the surface of the mummy was conducted
after bandaging. Alternatively, the external fabric layer may have come from a diferent
source.
5
Some remarks on cat mummies...
Fig. 1. Mummy inv. no. 252 MNW. Photo by Ł. Przewłocki and R. Stasiuk
249
250
W. Ejsmond, Ł. Przewłocki
image, the bones of the lower limbs can be seen. Around the middle part
of the spine, the broken connection between the lumbar vertebrae is visible
(indicated by arrows). The damage is probably of a secondary nature, since
most cat deaths were caused by the breaking of the neck or a blow with
a blunt object to the back of the head. As a result, this was most probably not
the cause of death.
The mummy is a special case, as its lower part (left on Fig. 1) does
not contain bones. This was almost certainly done to create the illusion that
the animal placed inside was larger than it was in reality. There are many
examples of animal mummies that were intended to look bigger or smaller
than they were (Ikram 2003, 92-94). This contradicts the opinion expressed
by Malek (1993, 134), who believed that young cats were selected
to be killed because their bodies were small and more of them could thus
be inserted into containers.
Fig. 2. Mummy inv. no. 252 MNW. Close-up of the hole and the cat’s fur.
Photo by Ł. Przewłocki
In Fig. 2, there is an opening which was perhaps deliberately made
by somebody who knew that ancient Egyptian embalmers placed amulets
within the fabric and hoped to ind one (?). Through this hole, preserved
cat fur can be seen. About 4cm from the top edge, there is an insect larva.
The second mummy (inv. no. 139009 MNW) is 30cm long and 6.2cm
wide (Fig. 3). It was donated by the General Directorate of Museums
and Monument Protection.
Some remarks on cat mummies...
Fig. 3. Mummy inv. no. 139009 MNW. Photo by W. Ejsmond and R. Stasiuk
251
252
W. Ejsmond, Ł. Przewłocki
On the surface, the mouth of the cat is clearly marked by paint (probably
liquid resin) and its erect ears are also prominent. The fabric which wraps
the body makes a chevron pattern. In its middle part, the mummy is damaged.
On the x-ray, the bones are broken in the same place. There is complex
damage of the cervical vertebrae, which would not have occurred in ancient
times, but during exploration, transportation or storage of the mummy.
The third mummy is inv. no. 181 MNW (Fig. 4). It is 34cm long
and 5.8cm wide. The specimen was x-rayed with a slat, which prevented
the mummy from breaking up into three parts. The mummy was given
to the National Museum in 1949 by UNESCO.
Its mouth, eyes and nose are marked by a few lines and a pair of ears
is stitched to its head. Some damage may be seen in two places on the surface
of the artefact, which indicates that internal damage should be visible
on the x-ray. This is the result of the mummy breaking, which most probably
happened in modern times. A closer look at the back of the cat’s skull reveals
broken bones that do not occur in healthy cats. It therefore appears that
the animal was put to death by a strong blow to the back of its head.
A very interesting discovery is a metal rod inserted between the skull
and the thoracic vertebrae, which was intended to strengthen the structure
of the mummy to prevent breakage. It is not known whether the installation
of this rod occurred in ancient or modern times. It is certain, however, that
it was done for aesthetic reasons to protect the stability of the mummy.
The fourth mummy (inv. no. 143329 MNW) is the most attractive
on the surface (Fig. 5). It came from the Louvre Museum and was transferred
to the National Museum at the beginning of the 1960s. Its length is 27.3cm
and its width is 6cm.
Dummy ears and eyes are sewn to the head to imitate these natural
features. The mummy is wrapped in two types of fabric, one white and one
dyed brownish using vegetable colours (perhaps wood bark). The geometric
decoration of the body is created with a subtle pattern of two-tone squares.
The x-ray image reveals displacement of the atlas vertebra orientation
from horizontal to vertical. After consultation with H. Frankiewicz,
T. Kalinowski and J. Jajkiewicz of the veterinary clinic in Wałbrzych and
Dr. Anna Gręzak, archaeozoologist of the Institute of Archaeology of Warsaw
University, it has been concluded that it is not possible for a cat’s neck to be
twisted this way by accident. The cervical vertebra must therefore have been
intentionally twisted and displaced, but it is diicult to say whether this was
the result of human action during the killing or the mummiication process.
Some remarks on cat mummies...
Fig. 4. Mummy inv. no. 181 MNW. Photo by Ł. Przewłocki and R. Stasiuk
253
254
W. Ejsmond, Ł. Przewłocki
Fig. 5. Mummy inv. no. 143329 MNW. Photo by Ł. Przewłocki and R. Stasiuk
The last mummy (inv. no. 253 MNW) is 35.9cm long and 9cm wide
(Fig. 6). It came as part of an exchange deal with the former German
Democratic Republic and arrived at the National Museum in 1957.
The artefact is badly damaged. There are traces of modern glue, which was
deinitely used to correct the appearance of the mummy. The dark stains
on its fabric may be traces of some of the resin used in the mummiication
of this particular mummy, but the fabric could also consist of re-used
bandages from another mummy (?).
The bandages are damaged and the bones of the cat are visible through
the holes. On the surface of the fabric is a carapace of a larva, probably
puparia, which is also present on mummy inv. no. 252 MNW. The
Some remarks on cat mummies...
255
Fig. 6. Mummy inv. no. 253 MNW. Photo by Ł. Przewłocki and R. Stasiuk
mummy lacks a head and its lumbar vertebrae are broken. It was possible
to determine that the cat was 24-26 weeks old at the time of its death on
the basis of epiphyseal union.7 When shooting pictures of the mummy, a
human tooth dropped out from among the bandages. A comparison with
other ancient Egyptian teeth indicates a similar abrasion and signs of tartar
or enamel hypoplasia,8 so it is most probably an ancient Egyptian specimen
(see below).
Consultation with veterinarian Ewa Wiśniewsk-Sak.
Consultation with the anthropologist MA Marzena Ożarek -Szilke, Institute of Archaeology, Warsaw University and MA Halszka Przychodzeń, Institute of Experimental Physics,
Optics Section, Department of Physics, Warsaw University.
7
8
256
W. Ejsmond, Ł. Przewłocki
Radiographic indings
The cat mummies of the National Museum in Warsaw all bear traces
that indicate that the animals were put to death. All have broken spines,
but one mummy (inv. no. 181 MNW) also has visible damage to the occipital
bone, meaning it possesses indications of both killing methods. The damage
to the skull may have occurred after the death of the cat, for example
during mummiication or after the completion of this process. There is
a metal rod in the upper part of the same mummy and it is broken in three
places, indicating that the reason for the rod was to keep the object straight.
This destruction seems to be related to the skull damage, which means
it was probably caused after mummiication and was therefore not the cause
of death.
The tooth
What could the reason for placing a human tooth in cat mummy inv.
no. 253 MNW have been? The tooth was simply stuck among the bandages.
On its surface, the tooth bears marks of strong polishing with sand and
its upper part is covered with a shiny substance, probably the resin (?)
used during mummiication (?). P. H. K. Gray (1966) has presented some
interesting cases of mummies with missing body parts, which were replaced
by dummy substitutes. The reason for this practice seems to have been fairly
obscure and ritual or magical signiicance cannot be ruled out. but what
happened to the body parts which were extracted, probably post mortem?
Perhaps they were inserted into other animal mummies which were made
to a special order. This would also explain the occasional occurrence
of human bones in animal mummies. It is hard to understand popular
devotion and to explain it in terms of logic, but it is perhaps possible
that people wished to leave both their own and their relatives’ body parts
in votive mummies, which were sacred in their own right and placed
in sacred precincts. Neither the personalisation of a mummy in such a way
nor the existence of magical procedures can be excluded at this stage.
both possible practices merit further research.
Some remarks on cat mummies...
257
references
Armitage P. L. and Clutton-Brock J. 1980. An investigation
of the mummiied cats held by the british Museum (Natural History).
MASCA Journal 6, 185-188.
Arnold d. 1995. An Egyptian bestiary. MAA 52/4.
Budge E. A. W. 1893. The Mummy: Chapters on Egyptian Funerary
Archaeology. Cambridge.
Friedman R. F. 2011. Hierakonpolis. In E. Teeter (ed.), Before the Pyramids:
the Origins of Egyptian Civilization, 33-44. Chicago.
Ginsburg l. 1999. Les chats momiiés du bubasteion de Saqqarah.
ASAE 74, 183-191.
Gray P. H. K. 1966. Embalmers’ ‘restoration’. JEA 52, 138-140.
Hanzák J. 1977. Egyptian mummies of animals in Czechoslovak
collections. ZÄS 104, 86-88.
Heptner V. G. and Sludskii A. A. 1992. The Mammals of the Soviet
Union. vol. 2, part 2: Carnivora (Hyaenas and Cats), transl. P. M. Rao.
Washington d.C.
ikram s. 1995. Choice Cuts: Meat Production in Ancient Egypt.
(Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 69). Leuven.
Ikram S. 2003. Death and Burial in Ancient Egypt. Cairo.
Ikram S. 2005a. Divine creatures: animal mummies. In S. Ikram (ed.),
1-15.
Ikram S. 2005b. Manufacturing divinity: the technology of mummiication. In S. Ikram (ed.), 16-43.
Ikram S. (ed.) 2005. Divine Creatures: Animal Mummies in Ancient
Egypt. Cairo, New York.
Ikram S. and Iskander N. 2002. Catalogue Général of Egyptian
Antiquities in the Cairo Museum, Nos. 24048-24056; 29504-29903
(selected); 51084-51101; 61089: non-human mummies. Cairo.
Kessler D. and Halim Nur el Din A. el 2005. Tuna al-Gebel: millions
of Ibises and other animals. In S. Ikram (ed.), 120-163.
malek J. 1993. The Cat in Ancient Egypt. London.
martin G. t. 1981. The Sacred Animal Necropolis of North Saqqara.
London.
Morrison-Scott T. C. S. 1952. The mummiied cats of ancient Egypt.
Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 121, 861-867.
Nicholson P. J. 2005. The Sacred Animal Necropolis at North Saqqara:
the cults and their catacombs. In S. Ikram (ed.), 44-71.
osborn d. J. and Helmy i. 1980. The Contemporary Land Mammals
of Egypt (Including Sinai). (Fieldiana Zoology NS 5). Chicago.
Petrie W. M. F. 1925. Tombs of the Courtiers and Oxyrhynkhos. BSAE
/ERA 37. London.
Pettigrew T. J. 1834. A History of Egyptian Mummies and an Account
of the Worship and Embalming of the Sacred Animals by the Egyptians.
London.
Summerield Estep N. 1995. Feline embodiments of divinity: a wooden
statue of a cat and a cat sarcophagus in the Kelsey Museum. Bulletin
of the University of Michigan Museum of Art and Archaeology 10,
66-91.
Sundquist M. and Sundquist F. 2002. Wild Cats of the World. Chicago.
Zivie A. and Lichtenberg R. 2005. The cats of goddess bastet.
In S. Ikram (ed.), 106-119.
Wojciech Ejsmond
c/o Institute of Archaeology
Warsaw University
wojtek.ejsmond@wp.pl
Łukasz Przewłocki
c/o Institute of Archaeology
Warsaw University
przewlockilukasz@wp.pl
S T U D I E S I N A N C I E N T A RT A N D C I v I L I Z AT I O N 18
Kraków 2014
Mariusz Izydor Prokopowicz
Krakow
THE ANCIENT EGyPTIAN SECONd
INFINITIvE? ‘IW + SUBJECT + R +
INFINITIvE’ INTERPRETED THROUGH
THE BIBLICAL INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE
ANd THE POLISH SECONd INFINITIVE
Abstract: Ininitives and ininitival constructions seem to be a kind
of conceptualization embedded in a language with a ‘genus’ diferent to that
of other grammatical forms. But why did human cognition invent ininitives
and their associated constructions? On an ontological level, ininitives
indicate intentionality that is pro-modal and timeless future-situationoriented (Prokopowicz 2012). Timeless future orientation expresses
accomplishment or achievement, which are diferent states of perfectivity.
If verbal inished forms direct our attention to the complexity of events,
which we can for instance classify and express in ‘eventive’ sentences,
ininitival forms draw our attention to situations (for a diferent context,
see Borghouts 2010: ‘situative clauses’; Prokopowicz 2012: ‘quality, state,
activity, event vs situation’). Situations are more complex than events
as they involve a speaker with varying intentions, as well as the cotext
of this speaker’s expression. Ininitival forms are less sentence-projected
and more discourse-projected.
DOI: 10.12797/SAAC.18.2014.18.16
260
M. I. Prokopowicz
All of this research has an obvious hermeneutical background.
If something is expressed syntactically in one language, it may as well be
expressed morphologically or semantically in other languages.
Keywords: Ininitival forms; discource-projection; aspectuality;
Egyptian grammar
The ‘iw + subject + r + ininitive’ construction is usually interpreted
as the ‘deontic future’; the action is not only expected by the speaker
/subject, but it inevitably has to become (vernus 1990) the subject’s destiny
(Malaise and Winand 1999: ‘elle est destine à’). We can interpret this kind
of deontic modality as commissive modality. The construction has also been
clariied as an ‘allative future’, which speciically indicates purpose or spatial
destination – structures associated with goals. If the Old Egyptian ‘allative
future’ marks the subject’s intention, in Middle Egyptian ‘the intention
of the subject is reinterpreted as marking the prediction of the speaker’
(Grossmann and Polis 2010). I would like to put forward the suggestion that
the Egyptian construction should not be interpreted temporarily or spatially.
It expresses a relationship (‘from-to’) of identity between the prediction
of the speaker and the predicted situation. Identiicationality is part
of the ‘be’ category (something ‘became/turned/changed…’ and ‘it is’).
The ancient Egyptian second ininitive?...
261
In the case being investigated, the situation is neither limited by
an identiicational ‘be’ locative parameter, nor by an identiicational ‘be’
temporal parameter, although the situation is conined by an identiicational
‘be’ substantive parameter (changing from a ‘thing’ to a ‘thing’, e.g. from
‘word’ to ‘rem’). The prediction of the speaker is marked by the auxiliary
iw-. As the initiator/modiicator of a discourse ield, the iw- auxiliary
represents a general grammatical unit more inclusive than a sentence.
When an Egyptian wanted to topicalize the hearer’s cognition in a discourse
(‘be conscious that…’), he would utter it using iw-.
This research paper will demonstrate that in the process of
grammaticalization (Traugott and Heine 1991), the Egyptian ‘r preposition’
joined the ininitive and developed:
1. into a complementizer expressing purpose (r+xxx),
2. into a preix, which forms (as in Polish or biblical Hebrew) the second
(perfective) ininitive, expressing accomplishment and achievement (rxxx),
3. into an ininitival construction (iw+rxxx) conveying deontic,
accomplished or achieved and future-projected (timeless) situations.
In Hebrew, the discourse-projected second ininitive indicates commissive
modality, engaging the speaker/hearer relationship and turning the actor
into the undergoer. In Polish, the second ininitive expresses perfectivity,
formed by a simple ‘stick’: preix (often a grammaticalized preposition)
+ the irst (imperfective) ininitive.
In Polish, Hebrew and Egyptian, the second ininitive constitutes
a future-oriented modal construction – the second (perfective) future.
Moreover, it appears that the Egyptian ‘verbal’ construction
‘sDm.f prospective’ is clearly ‘subordinated’ (here: sentence-projected)
in the pragmatical ield to the more general iw-ininitival construction.
This pragmatism constitutes an essential distinction between the two
future-oriented constructions. In other words, an event (verb and eventive
/resultative clause) occurs within the scope of a situation (ininitive and
situative/causative clause).
Finally, our research will show that the time-aspect proportional
correlations of the Egyptian second ininitive construction are as follows:
‘iw/mk + subject + r + ininitive’ expresses accomplishment
(of activities) and achievement (of state) in the future
the ‘old perfective’ expresses accomplishment (of activities)
and achievement (of a state) in the past
M. I. Prokopowicz
262
Expressing aspectuality
Firstly, I would like to propose a type of operative simpliication
concerning a group of Egyptian clauses. A large group of clauses with
the verbal predicate (model: sDm.f) conveys event information, clauses with
the nominal predicate (model: ‘subject - m - noun’) convey state information
(this includes, in my opinion, the ‘locutional’ clauses representing a stage
of a state event: ‘to be in’) and clauses with the ininitival predicate (model:
‘subject - r - ininitive’) convey situation information. The last category
is the most universal (discourse-projected), because it expresses
(not necessarily overtly) a transition from an old state, through events,
towards a new state, which signiies an underlying ‘before-after’ order.
Events and states relate to diferent aspectualities.
In a situation, the event and the state after (accomplished/achieved)
are overtly presented, but the state before remains within the underlying
ield.
The ancient Egyptian second ininitive?...
263
Morphologically marked aspectuality
The irst observation to be made in this area is that among languages
with several ininitives (such as Polish), the diferent ininitives highlight
diferent aspectualities (contrary to common belief, ininitives are not
aspectually neutral). It seems that languages gifted with a plurality
of ininitives have the potential to form a morphologically distinguished
plurality of aspectualities (and vice versa). The lexically aspectual form
is internally generated in the following way: a state generates an achievement,
whilst an activity generates an accomplishment. This means that
on the level of grammatical aspectuality, perfectivity derives from
imperfectivity. In Polish, the irst ininitive expresses imperfectivity,
the second ininitive indicates perfectivity and the ‘third’ ininitive conveys
habituality.
Morphologically, the relationship between Aktionsarten and ‘aspects’
is clear; lexical aspectualities appear as diferent forms of imperfectivity
(state, activities) and perfectivity (accomplishment, achievement) and also
show derivations: state/achievement (with/without an aix) and activity/
accomplishment (with/without an aix).
Forms conveying perfectivity derive from imperfectivity by means
of preixes, which must be (?) interpreted as grammaticalized forms
of prepositions and adverbs. Polish and other Slavic languages ‘specialize’
in the aix-triggered formation of diferent ininitives with various
aspectualities:
1. czytać (activities) – ‘read’
2. przeczytać (accomplishment) – ‘to read’ (the prze- preix)
2a. wyczytać (subtype of accomplishment) – ‘to read’, ‘to see’
(the wy- preix)
2b. doczytać (subtype of accomplishment) – ‘to read to the end’
(the do- preix)
2c. odczytać (subtype of accomplishment) – ‘to read out’, ‘to interpret’
(the od- preix)
3. czytywać (habituality) – ‘to read’ (from time to time/often)
(the -yw- inix)
264
M. I. Prokopowicz
3a. wyczytywać (subtype of habituality) – ‘to read out’, e.g. names
according to a principle (the wy- preix, and -yw- inix)
3b. odczytywać (subtype of habituality) – ‘to read out with a time span’
(the od- preix, and -yw- inix).
There are even more ininitives (and thus aspects) of the ‘to read’
ininitive, but they seem to be merely subcategories of accomplishment,
activities, and habituality. These three ininitival forms are therefore
the most basic.
Accomplishment derived from activities by causative derivation.
Preixes, the building blocks of aspectuality, resemble a grammaticalized
prepositional form.
Let us consider an ininitive with a fundamentally diferent
aspectuality:
4. lubić (state) – ‘to like’
5. polubić (achievement) – ‘to grow fond of’ (the po- preix).
Achievement derived from a state by inchoative derivation (the reason
for a new state; the transition from one state to another).
Let us focus on two timeless aspectual forms: ‘the property’ and
‘the class of membership’ (for English: Lehmann 1999). On an ininitival
level, they form ininitival phrases.
6. być zielonym (property) – ‘to be green’
7. zazielenić (accomplishment) – ‘to cover with greenery’, ‘to stain green’,
‘to turn green’ (the za- preix)
Accomplishment derived from a property by causative derivation.
Accomplishment derived from a property vs achievement derived from
a state.
8. być nauczycielem (class of membership) – ‘to be a teacher’
9. zostać nauczycielem (achievement) – ‘to become a teacher’
Achievement derived from class membership by inchoative derivation.
Not only do we thus support vandler’s (1967) opinion that aspectualities
should be grouped in matching pairs (activities-accomplishment) (stateachievement), but we would also like to state that this pairing is related
to aspect forming derivation.
However, we do acknowledge that states and activities share the same
basic state of ininitive in morphology, which can be termed the ‘irst
ininitive’. Ininitival forms expressing achievement and accomplishment –
the ‘second ininitive’ – are usually represented in Polish by aixal forms.
The ancient Egyptian second ininitive?...
265
Morphologically unmarked aspectuality
There is a group of verbs/ininitives in which the lexical and grammatical
aspect is not marked by morphology. For example, the perfective lexical
form of zamknąć (‘to close’) does not have any preix. Morphologically,
it looks like the irst ininitive, but grammatically it conveys perfectivity and
lexically it signiies accomplishment, features characteristic of the second
ininitive. This means that the basic lexical information of such verbs only
conveys accomplishment or achievement and not any activity or state. These
ininitives should be treated independently of their morphological forms
meaning that our example, zamknąć (‘to close’), represents the second
ininitive, which in turn signiies perfectivity. The imperfective (the true
irst ininitive) form is marked morphologically (zamykać), but it looks like
a ‘third ininitive’ (which usually expresses habituality) built with an inix.
When a language cannot pass from imperfectivity to perfectivity on the basis
of morphology, it creates a new word that lexically refers to perfectivity
(‘go-arrive’ versus Polish jechać-przyjechać). When perfectivity appears
as a basic, morphological form, imperfectivity (if it exists) may take
on a new morphological form (zamknąć-zamykać/‘close-closing’).
zamknąć (‘close’) – the second ininitive
lexically: accomplishment
grammatically: perfectivity
morphologically: like the irst ininitive ( Ø aix).
zamykać (‘closing’) – the irst ininitive
lexically: activity
grammatically: imperfectivity
morphologically: like the third ininitive (habituality) (-y- inix).
It seems obvious that a chosen aspectuality can be represented
on diferent levels (lexically, grammatically, morphologically), but it does
not always appear fully distributed. A new aspectuality can contract diferent
morphological forms of the verb/ininitive (very often the case in Polish)
or reveal a new verb/ininitive (very often the case in English). Moreover,
there is a large group of verbs/ininitives in English, the grammatical
aspectuality of which is modiied by an adverb (such as ‘turn of’, ‘mile
of’), but, in reality, the ‘adverb’ resembles an aix as (?) a grammaticalized
form of an adverb or preposition (see below).
In sentence complexity, aspectuality can be represented on a syntactic
level.
An Egyptian ininitival construction represents perfectivity in terms
of syntax and thus both accomplishment and achievement
M. I. Prokopowicz
266
Prepositions in the process of grammaticalization
For the sake of this paper, ‘prepositions’ are loosely deined, since they
overlap with adverbs, particles, conjunctions, and case and time aixes.
In several languages, ‘prepositions’ appear as very useful operators,
particularly within the process of grammaticalization, when they do not
retain their original meaning. For us, two diferent vectors inside this process
are meaningful. Morphosyntactically, prepositions have developed into
either complementizers with ininitives (‘for to see’ – in Polish: aby widzieć)
or aixes that modulate aspectuality and introduce situationality by means
of the ininitive (‘to see’: ujrzeć in Polish, lirot in Hebrew).
These aixes are often interpreted as adverbs or particles in English
and have the potential to generate a new aspectuality: ‘turn of’, ‘look out’.
Sometimes English expresses a new aspectuality, thus creating a complex
form: ‘to take a liking’. Future orientation comes from the space-time
cognitive distribution of our cognition, which is expressed in Polish and
Egyptian by using a preposition/aix.
In light of these last remarks, I would like to suggest the following
interpretation of the Egyptian ‘r + ininitive’ construction. In the process
of grammaticalization, the r- preposition develops into:
1. A conjunction complementizer, which, when attached to an ininitive
(10), expresses purpose (11). The ininitive must be interpreted as the irst
ininitive, conveying imperfectivity (r + xxx), or as the second ininitive,
conveying perfectivity (r + [r]xxx).
2. A preix aspectual marker, which forms the second (perfective) ininitive
(rxxx) with the ininitive, expressing accomplishment or achievement (12).
3. A future marker of perfectivity (13).
4. A future-marker of a deontic perfective situation (14)
10.
ii.t
First inf. (imperfective, activity)
Polish: jechać/pływać
English: ‘to go’
11.
rii.t
Complementizer + irst inf./sec. inf. (purpose,
/perfective)
Polish: aby jechać/przyjechać/przypłynąć/przybyć
English: ‘in order to go/arrive’
imperfective
The ancient Egyptian second ininitive?...
267
12.
rii.t
Second inf. aspectual marker (perfective, accomplishment)
Polish: przyjechać/przypływać/przybywać (preix + ininitive)
English: ‘to arrive’ (a new ininitive)
13.
dpt rii.t
Subject + second inf. (perfective, accomplishment, future)
Polish: Łódź przypłynie (preix + inlected form).
English: ‘The ship will arrive’ (a new verb).
14.
iw dpt rii.t
iw + subject + second inf. (speaker-hearer, perfective, accomplishment,
future)
Polish: Bądź świadom tego, co wydarzy się: łódź przypłynie.
English: ‘be conscious of what will become: the ship will arrive.’
The appearance of a diferent aspectuality is marked lexically by a new
verb in English, but marked morphologically in Polish and syntactically
in Egyptian by a new ‘prepositional’ construction of the same verb.
Expressing the future
Ininitives can contain future orientation. The morphosemantic and
functional distinction between the irst ininitive and the second ininitive
is particularly instructive in constructions expressing the future.
The irst future expresses non-completed/non-perfect future situations,
whereas the second future indicates completed/perfect ones. but how
is it possible for human cognition to express perfectivity in future ields?
English restricts this kind of expressivity and forms the second future
with concomitant conditions (‘I will have done it when...’), non-personal
passivisation (‘It will be done’) or diferent types of modalities (‘I can read
over’). The passive interpretation of an ininitive also characterizes such
grammatical situations in Egyptian ‘si le deuxième argument d’un ininitif
est efacé’ (Malaise 1999, #689). Polish (except for passivisation) is highly
‘restricted’, as expressing the future perfect with an ininitive is always
‘modal plus’. In other words, the second ininitive constitutes the second
(perfect) future by introducing a speaker. This is a kind of subjectiication
M. I. Prokopowicz
268
(in a diferent context: Langacker 1998). A slightly similar tendency can
be observed in the ‘swinging’ English I will/shall. The ‘non-modal’ future
perfect situation is here expressed by the use of verbs in their perfect form
(preix + verb), but even if a sentence is verbally non-modal in such a case,
in speech ‘reality’, the perfectivity triggers a ‘modal-oriented’ intonation
of the speaker.
irst ininitive (activities) (15) (17)
and verb imperf. (16)
in the irst (imperfective) future
second ininitive (accomplishment) (17a)
and verb perf. (16a)
in the second (perfective) future
* means ‘incorrect’
15. Będę czytać książkę.
irst inf.
‘I will read a book.’
16. Będę
czytał
inl. 3s. imperf.
*15a. Będę przeczytać książkę.
sec. inf.
* ‘I will to have read a book.’
książkę.
16a.
‘I will read a book.’
Przeczytam
inl. 1 sg. perfect
książkę.
‘I shall read a book’
/‘I will have read a book...’
17. Muszę czytać książkę.
17a. Będę musiał przeczytać książkę.
‘I have to read a book’
‘I will have to read a book.
irst inf.
irst ininitive (state) (18) (20)
or verb imperf. (19)
in the irst (imperfective) future
18. Będę lubić ten ilm.
irst inf.
‘I will like this movie.’
19. Będę
lubił
inl. 3 sg. imperf.
ten ilm.
‘I will like this movie.’
20. Muszę
lubić ten ilm.
irst inf.
‘I could like this movie.’
sec. inf.
second ininitive (achievement) (20a)
or verb perf. (19a)
in the second (perfective) future
*18a. Będę polubić ten ilm.
sec. inf.
* ‘I will have to take a liking
to this movie.’
19a.
Polubię
inl. 1 sg. perfect
ten ilm.
‘i shall take a liking to this
movie.’
20a. Będę mógł polubić ten ilm.
sec. inf.
‘I could take a liking to this
movie.’
The ancient Egyptian second ininitive?...
irst ininitive (property) (23)
or verb (22)
in the irst (imperfective) future
*21. Ten samochód
będzie być
zielony.
269
second ininitive (accomplishment) (23a)
or verb (22a)
in the second (perfective) future
*21a. Ten samochod
zostać
zazieleniony.
sec. inf.
irst inf.
* ‘The car will be be green.’
22. Ten samochód będzie zielony.
inl. 3 sg.
* ‘The car to become green.
22a. Ten samochód
zostanie
zazieleniony.
inl. 3 sg.
‘The car will be green.’
23. Ten samochód musi
być
zielony.
‘The car will become green.’
zostać
23a. Ten samochód musi
zazieleniony.
irst inf.
‘The car has to be green.’
irst ininitive (class membership) (26)
or verb imperf. (25)
in the irst (imperfective) future
sec. inf.
‘The car has to become green.’
second ininitive (achievement) (26a)
or verb perf. (25a)
in the second (perfective) future
*24. On będzie być nauczycielem. *24a. On będzie zostać nauczycielem.
irst inf.
sec. inf.
* ‘He will be be a teacher.’
25. On
będzie
inl. 3 sg. imperf.
* ‘He will be become a teacher.’
nauczycielem. 25a. On
‘He will be a teacher.’
26. On chce być nauczycielem.
irst inf.
‘He wants to be a teacher.’
zostanie
inl. 3 sg. perfect
nauczycielem.
‘He will become a teacher.’
26a. On chce zostać nauczycielem.
sec. inf.
‘He wants to become a teacher.’
The irst future (non-completed situation, modal + or -) can be conveyed
using the irst ininitive. The second future, expressing a completed situation,
is conveyed: 1. by a construction with a verb in the future perfect (modal
-/+) or 2. by a construction with the second ininitive (modal +). This means
that the Polish second ininitive is pro-modal par excellence. The future
of atemporal forms (property and class membership), which are ‘more’
nominal, is expressed (with ininitival phrases) only in irrealis moods.
M. I. Prokopowicz
270
atelic
TIME
Aspect
dERIVATION
atemporal
class
membership
A
durative
property
B
state
activities
imperfectivity
A
B
A-a
b–b
Mode
FIRST INFINITIVE
IRREALIS
REALIS/
IRREALIS
telic
terminative punctual
accomplish- achievement
ment
perfectivity
b
a
SECONd INFINITIVE
VERB IN FUTURE
PERFECT
IRREALIS- INF./
REALIS-vERb
in FUT. perfect
Fig. 1. TAM (Time Aspect Mood) distribution of Ininitives and Future Perfect verbs
in Polish
The Polish future perfect and the Egyptian ‘iw + subject + r + ininitive’
construction have the following in common:
1. They exclusively mark accomplishment or achievement and are thus
future perfect oriented.
2. They often express remote future: Zostanę poetą – ‘I shall be a poet’
(for Egyptian see vernus 1990, 11).
3. They help to convey commissive modality in prophecies: (certainly)
Powrócę tu za rok. ‘I shall return in a year.’
As we have seen, the Polish future perfect is conveyed by:
1. ininitival, modal-oriented expressions,
2. verb inlectional expressions (not necessarily modal-oriented).
If we want to express an Egyptian ininitival future-oriented construction
in Polish, we get the following distinctions:
27. Subject +
r iit/riit
r+inf./second inf.
Polish: przyjedzie (inl. 3 sg.)
English: ‘(It will become) it will arrive’.
This is an ininitival construction (with the second ininitive) expressing
the future perfect (the second future). The form is modal ‘zero/plus’, which
here means that in the act of speech the intonation conveys a kind of modality
(usually an assertion – ‘it will become’) which encompasses the speakerhearer ield, wherein the speaker is the irst person, the hearer is the second
person, and the actor is the third person.
The ancient Egyptian second ininitive?...
28. iw + subject +
271
r iit/riit
r+inf./second inf.
Polish: (może/musi) ‘przyjechać’ + ‘przyjedzie’ + (bądź świadom)
+ (tak oto stanie się)
English: ‘(it can/it have to) “arrive” + “it will arrive” + (be conscious)
+ (it will become)’.
This is an ininitival construction that expresses the modal future perfect.
The situational ield of the construction is very complex as it contains:
1. an incontestable assertion concerning the hearer’s consciousness,
2. the objectivity of the situation,
3. the speaker’s intention,
4. the hearer’s obligation/fulillment.
Such complexity cannot be supported by a single sentence. The Egyptian
construction conveys a situation which extrapolates sentence projection
and the construction is thus geared towards discourse/narration. No Polish
construction can simultaneously combine the ‘modal’ situation implied
in przyjechać (‘to arrive’, ininitive), and przyjedzie (‘it will arrive’, inlected
form of the third person). both are necessary because the ininitive conveys
modality and situationality, whilst the inlected verbal form conveys the third
person and an objective assertion. In Egyptian, the frontally positioned iwmarks discourse projections begun in reference to the hearer’s consciousness:
‘be conscious that’ (see below).
Among Semitic languages, biblical Hebrew contains the second
ininitive with semantic distribution similar to the Egyptian iw- ininitival
construction.
Expressing modality
biblical Hebrew, along with several other languages including ancient
Egyptian, belongs to a (rare) group of verb-initial languages, in which
ininitives ‘play a more prominent role’ (Callaham 2010, 40).
As is the case with several other ancient Semitic languages
(Phoenician, Ugaritic, Amarna Acadian), biblical Hebrew has two diferent
ininitival forms: ‘construct’, and ‘absolute’ (the latter is labelled here
as the ‘second ininitive’). The second ininitive usually appears in the bible
as a ‘paronomastic ininitive’, meaning the ininitive acts together with
its cognate verb (e.g. katol yktol, ‘to kill’ ‘he kills’). This interesting ‘coupling’
(inite form + non-inite form) has traditionally been interpreted as a kind
M. I. Prokopowicz
272
of ‘stress’ (‘certainly he will kill’), but more recently as a marker of
modalities, especially deontic modality (Callaham 2010). The complexity
of the second (biblical) ininitive is similar to its complexity in Egyptian,
which was described at the end of the last chapter.
The biblical paronomastic ininitive absolute (Callaham 2010)
is often used in prophecies and predictions in the same way as our Egyptian
ininitival construction (‘deontic modality’ in Egyptian constructions: vernus
1990). Egyptian deontic utterances can be interpreted within ‘commissive
modality’.
The internal ield of ‘commissive modality’ is the following:
1. Pragmatically, commissive modality emphasises the speaker-hearer
relationship: ‘You should be conscious of...’, ‘be aware…’ with an emphasis
on results: ‘certainly it will become’. In prophetic promises and threats,
the locution must be fulilled, not only for the reason that it has been said
by a divinity or prophet, but also because the perceiver, in the act of hearing,
becomes the undergoer and is no longer the actor. On a cognitive level,
when the speaker’s utterance has been embodied by the perceiver, a locution
begins ‘to live’ in reality.
2. Semantically, the ininitive marks the ‘cause’ premise, which
announces the internal results of an ‘ininitival’ situation, expressed by
a ‘then’ or ‘for’ sentence. Here, the ininitive acts as an ‘ininitive resultative’
directing the ield of the construction towards the larger scope of discourse.
The ‘resultativeness’ within an utterance (therefore in reality) conirms
the ‘truthfulness’ (incorporation) of the prediction.
29.
.םינב ידלת צעב ךנרהו ךנובצע הברא הברה רמא השאה לא
inf. abs.+v
Polish: A do kobiety powiedział, wiedz, że tak oto stanie się: zwiększę twój
sec. fut.
ból
i twą zdolność do rodzenia, i wtedy będziesz rodzić dzieci w bólu.
result
The ancient Egyptian second ininitive?...
273
English: ‘Unto the woman he said be conscious of what will become,
i shall intensify your pain and your ability to procreate and then
result
in anguish you shall bear children.’ (Gn 3.16).
.ךתשא הרשל ןב הנהו היחה תעכ ךילא בושא בוש רמויו
30.
inf. abs.+v
Polish: i powiedział, wiedz, że tak oto stanie się: powrócę do ciebie za rok,
sec. fut.
a wtedy twoja żona, Sara, będzie miała syna.
result
English: ‘He said be conscious of what will become, i shall return
to you in a year, and then your wife, Sara, will bear a son.’
result
(Gn 18.10)
Internal distribution within the ininitive absolute seems to be very
similar to the Egyptian ininitival perfect construction, because it conveys:
1. future perfect orientation; 2. commissive modality (the actor becomes
the undergoer); 3. the speaker-hearer relationship; 4. discourse projection
(see below); 5. the combination of ininitival situational impersonality with
the irst person (the speaker, implicit), second person (the hearer, implicit)
and third person (overtly the actor/undergoer).
Finally, the Egyptian construction in our example should be interpreted
as follows:
31. iw + subject +
Polish: Bądź świadom tego, co wydarzy się – S przybędzie...
English: ‘be conscious of what will become – s shall arrive...’
The nature of the ‘forced ininitive’
Let us go into greater detail about the ‘forced ininitive’ of our ininitival
construction and its linguistic and philosophical background.
The ‘iw + subject + r + ininitive’ construction contains an internally
subsisting identiicational ‘be substantive’ parameter. This parameter creates
the necessary incorporated results of future-oriented, completed and timeless
situations, which are particularly useful in prognostics and magical spells.
How can this be understood?
Every future expression encompasses a (non-)overt ‘from – to’
relationship. Within these, there are some verbs which have an identiicational
parameter, such as ‘turn’, ‘change’, ‘transform’, ‘convert’… (Gruber 1976,
140-148).
274
M. I. Prokopowicz
Identiication, meaning ‘changing/turning from a (thing/place/time)
to a (thing/place/time) results in the ‘“be” category’ (often incorporated).
The ‘be’ identiicational is threefold:
(‘be’ locative): changing ‘from’ a place ‘to’ a place: ‘the ship will arrive
from home’
(‘at’ a place) > the ship will be [‘at’ a place].
(‘be’ temporal): changing ‘from’ a time ‘to’ a time: ‘the ship will arrive
from home’
(‘later’) > the ship will be here [later].
(‘be’ substantive): changing ‘from’ a thing/word ‘to’ a thing: [‘it will
become’], ‘the ship will arrive from home’ > the ship will be [as/for I say].
In our case, the situation is not conined by the identiicational ‘be’
locative parameter, nor by the identiicational ‘be’ temporal parameter,
but the situation is limited by the identiicational ‘be’ substantive
parameter (changing ‘from’ a thing ‘to’ a thing; e.g. from a word to a ‘res’
in prophecy).
A prediction of a speaker is marked by the iw- auxiliary (the initial
part of the utterance). As the initiator/modiicator of the discourse ield,
the iw- auxiliary represents a general grammatical unit more inclusive than
a sentence. With the aid of the iw- utterance, the speaker directly engages
the consciousness of the hearer: ‘be conscious…’, ‘make aware…’. The iwmarks not only the exact moment of the speech (Winand 2006), but above
all, the direct impact on the hearer, magically enforced in our construction
– ‘it will come/become’. The lexically important ‘it’ pronoun (Prokopowicz
2012), which is present non-overtly in iw+s+r+inf., creates an event
situation destiny or situational identiication that is diferent to the Egyptian
identiicational iw A m B and iw A r B constructions that express being state
destiny.
The ancient Egyptian second ininitive?...
275
Expressing situation
Morphologically unmarked and marked aspectuality
Understanding the pragmatic diference between an event and a situation
is of crucial importance. Someone said in prophecy:
32. Polish: Będziesz pić czystą wodę po śmierci.
irst future
English: ‘you will drink pure water after death.’
Let us refer to Fig.1 for this utterance:
If we consider the utterance as an event, the act of drinking water
is the aspectual ‘head’ and expresses durativity, activities, and
imperfectivity.
If we consider the utterance as a situation, the act of (the ‘speaker’s’)
prophecy is the aspectual ‘head’ and states that ‘drinking water after death’
expresses terminativity (‘it will be’), accomplishment (of prophecy),
and perfectivity (‘cause’ – ‘a new state’).
Why is the future perfect situation not expressed with the second future
here in order to avoid ambiguity?
33. Polish: Wypijesz czystą wodę po śmierci.
second future
English: ‘You will drink up pure water after death.’
This utterance (33) is acceptable as an event, but unacceptable
as a situation. The speaker’s prophecy in (32) is about eternity, which
our cognition understands as durativity. In this particular case, durativity
combines with semantic perfectivity and this suggests a more obvious
situational context. In order to avoid ambiguity, the event context is introduced
by a verb in the inished form and in the second future (33). The English
‘drink up’ looks like a ‘verb + aix’ combination and the aix adverb
introduces the new grammatical aspect. When we want to express (33)
by means of a second ininitive, a modal form appears by necessity with
a situational context, but without event connotations:
34. Polish: Będziesz musiał
wypić
second inf.
czystą wodę po śmierci.
English: ‘You will have to drink up pure water after death.’
These examples show that we should distinguish the semantics
of a situation from the semantics of an event (Prokopowicz 2012).
M. I. Prokopowicz
276
If an event expresses eternity/durativity (a ‘non-inished’ state),
an achievement appears as the end of durativity (‘the water will have been
drunk’, see Fig. 1). In the case of semantic event perfectivity, an achievement
expresses a new state. In the case of semantic situational perfectivity,
an achievement expresses eternity/durativity prognoses by the speaker
and takes the syntactic form of the irst ininitive.
Syntactically, Egyptian expresses the diference between an event
and a situation with the aid of the
iw- particle. A future situation is
conveyed by the iw + second ininitive combination and the situation remains
discourse projected, not sentence projected.
At this stage, I would like to suggest that the diference between
the Egyptian ‘sDm.f prospective’ and the ‘iw- sentence ininitival’
construction does not relate to the immediate future vs remote future and
volitive future vs deontic future distinctions (as proposed by vernus 1990).
The examples below show that the diference between the ‘sDm.f prospective’
and the ‘iw+subject+r+ininitive’ is irst of all pragmatic and concerns
distinctions between discourse projection vs sentence projection, and subject
projection vs subject-hearer projection. The iw- foretells a ‘cause’ situation,
which is more general than ‘subordinated results’ events. In this context,
we ind a kind of ‘sḏm.f resultative (‘then…’; ‘and it will become…’),
developing the opinion that ‘sḏm.f is not a verb form, but a verb formation’
(Depuydt 1993).
The Snake prophesying the future of the Sailor (1) (SS 120-123):
35.
iw dpt r ii.t m Xnw sqdw im=s rx.n=k
iw + subject + r + inf.
Polish: Bądź świadom tego, co wydarzy się – łódź przybędzie z domu,
sec. fut.
sec. fut.
a z nią żeglarze, których znasz,
English: ‘be conscious of what will become – the ship will arrive from
home, together with sailors whom you know,’
iw+subject+second ininitive: situation-cause, remote future, deontic
future
The ancient Egyptian second ininitive?...
277
36.
Sm=k Hna=sn r Xnw
sDm.f prosp.
Polish: (wtedy) powrócisz z nimi do domu.
sec. fut.
English: ‘(then) you will return home with them.’
sdm.f prospective: event result, immediate result in remote future,
deontic future
37.
m(w).t=k m niwt=k
sDm.f prosp.
Polish: (i tak będzie, że) umrzesz w swoim mieście.
sec. fut.
English: ‘(and will happen that) you will die in your city.’
sdm.f. prospective: event result, remote result in remote future, deontic
future
The snake prophecy expresses the deontic and remote future
in an ‘objective’ situation using iw+subject+r+ininitive (35) and ‘objective’
events using the sDm.f prospective (36, 37). The sDm.f resembles a results
subordinated construction:
Event-result is under the scope of situation-cause
We are confronted with a type of ancient non-sentence logic, in which
the (iw-) sentences mark a more universal ‘cause’ situation and (sDm.f-)
sentences express less universal ‘result’ events. In reality, this also touches
upon the true distinction between ininitival and non-ininitival constructions,
as we have already seen in the biblical texts.
1. Pragmatically, an ininitival construction relates future results
to the consciousness of the perceiver and for this reason.
2. The ininitival (‘situational’) construction encompasses the whole
situation, as well as the scope of the sDm.f. The iw- and mk- particles
act as markers of a person discourse situation.
3. The ininitival construction has been non-overtly expressed
in the irst person (‘I tell you’) and second person (‘you should be conscious’)
and overtly in the third person (‘the ship will...’).
M. I. Prokopowicz
278
The irst person always exists in our construction, but not always
explicitly.
Interestingly, when the snake repeats the prophecy, the ininitive
construction appears under the scope of an mk- sentence which overtly
engages the hearer’s consciousness. It is obvious that:
iw + Subject + r + ininitive appears when the actor is the irst or the third
person
mk + Subject + r + ininitive appears when the actor is the second person
The Snake prophesying the future of the Sailor (2) (SS 167b-169a)
38.
mk tw r spr r Xnw n(y) 2-abd
mk + subject + r + inf.
Polish:
bądź świadom tego, co wydarzy się – dotrzesz do domu
sec. fut.
sec. fut.
za dwa miesiące.
English: ‘be conscious of what will become – you will arrive home
in two months.’
mk+subject+second ininitive: situation cause, remote future, deontic
future
39.
mH=k qni=k m Xrdw=k
sDm.f prosp.
Polish: (wtedy) wypełnisz swe ramiona twymi dziećmi.
sec. fut.
English: ‘(then) you will ill your children with your embrace.’
sdm.f prospective: event result, immediate result in remote future,
deontic future
40.
rnpy=k m Hnw, qrs.tw=k
sDm.f prosp., sDm.f prosp. pass.
Polish:
(i tak będzie, że) twe lata wypełnią się w domu twoim
sec. fut.
i zostaniesz pochowany.
sec. fut. pass.
The ancient Egyptian second ininitive?...
279
English: ‘(and it will become that) you will spend the rest of your
life at home, and you will be buried.’
sdm.f prospective: event result, remote result in remote future, deontic
future
The mk- ininitival sentence construction is fully situational, foretells
what will certainly be incorporated and the sDm.f is within its scope.
The only diference between the ininitival mk- and iw- sentences
in the snake’s prophecy is the third and the second person.
According to our pragmatic hypothesis, every ininitival iw- sentence
expresses the mk-sentence non-overtly (‘be conscious of what will
become...’), because it engages the hearer’s consciousness by presenting
a situation. both types of ininitival expressions (iw- sentence + r and
mk- sentence + r) have the following features that are similar to the biblical
commisive modality of the ininitive absolute:
1. they express a situation which will certainly be fulilled and are thus
‘forced ininitives’. The situation is externally imposed and for this reason
the actor becomes the undergoer; the true actor (a divinity or destiny) often
exists implicitly.
2. they are ‘ininitive resultatives’, which means that they mark speakerhearer cognition in discourse, not only in sentence; the whole situation
is within its scope.
3. they are bi-aspectual: achievement + accomplishement/achievement.
‘iw + Subject + r + ininitive’ and the old perfective (introductory
remarks)
The Egyptian ininitival construction expresses achievement (of a state)
or accomplishment (of activities) in the ield of a future projected situation.
The Old Perfective expresses achievement (of a state) or accomplishment
(of activities) in the ield of a past projected situation. Such an interpretation
of the Old Perfective leads to this observation: ‘Aspectuellement, le parfait
ancient est un accompli résultatif, c’est-à-dire une forme envisageant
une situation conçue comme une acquisition du point de vue du sujet…
le moment de reference sélectionne la post-phase à l’intérieur
de la proposition logique (Malaise and Winand 1999, #715). According
to our proposition, the ‘post-phase’ is related to a state or an event and thus
appears bi-aspectual.
M. I. Prokopowicz
280
1. activities
accomplishment (e.g. ‘put’
‘lie’)
41.
hAtt rd.t(i) Hr tA (SS 4-5)
Polish: Cuma leżała już na ziemi.
English: ‘The mooring rope was already lying on the ground.’
achievement (e.g. ‘sit’
‘besiege’)
2. state
42.
Hm=i Hms.(w) Hr=s (Urk. 4.184.17-185.1) (cit. Malaise and Winand
1999, eg. 1132).
Polish: Mój Majestat obległ ją (miasto).
English: ‘My Majesty besieged her (the town).’
references
Borghouts J. 2010. Egyptian, an Introduction to the Writing and Language
of the Middle Kingdom, vols 1-2. Leuven.
Callaham S. N. 2010. Modality and the Biblical Hebrew Ininitive
Absolute. Wiesbaden.
Depuydt L. 1993. A history of research on the prospective Sḏm.f forms
in Middle Egyptian. JARCE 30, 11-31.
Gruber J. s. 1976. Lexical Structures in Syntax and Semantics. (NorthHolland Linguistic Series 25). Amsterdam.
Grossmann E. and Polis S. 2010. How to Get the Future Without a Verb
of Motion (or Metaphors). The emergence of the Allative Future
in Old Egyptian. Unpublished lecture in Humbold Universität in berlin.
Langacker R. W. 1998. On subjectiication and grammaticization.
In J. P. Koenig (ed.), Discourse and Cognition: Bridging the Gap,
71-89. Stanford.
lehmann c. 1999. Aspectual types. In K. brown (ed.), Concise
Encyclopedia of Grammatical Categories, 43-49. Amsterdam, Lausanne.
Malaise M. and Winand J. 1999. Grammaire raisonnée de L’Égyptien
classique. Liège.
The ancient Egyptian second ininitive?...
281
Prokopowicz M. 2012. Metaizyka gramatyki: dyskurs versus narracja.
Unpublished text. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/
7604876/Metaizyka_gramatyki_dyskurs_versus_narracja (status as of
Dec. 14th, 2014).
traugott e. c. and Heine B. (eds) 1991. Approaches to Grammaticalization, vols 1-2. Amsterdam.
Vernus P. 1990. Future at Issue: Tense, Mood, and Aspect in Middle
Egyptian: Studies in Syntax and Semantics. Yale University.
Winand J. 2006. Temps et Aspects en Égyptien. Une Approche
Sémantique. Leiden.
Mariusz Izydor Prokopowicz
independent researcher
prokop.egypt@gmail.com
S T U D I E S I N A N C I E N T A RT A N D C I v I L I Z AT I O N 18
Kraków 2014
Mladen Tomorad, Mislav Čavka, Igor Uranić,
Kristina Šekrst
Zagreb
CURRENT EGyPTOLOGICAL
RESEARCH IN CROATIA
Abstract: Over the last years, much Egyptological research has
been conducted in Croatia across various diferent ields. The CroatoAegyptica Electronica (CAE) project has been in progress and, at several
museums across the country, ancient Egyptian artefacts have been analysed
and new exhibitions created. At the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb,
a radiological study of Egyptian mummies has been conducted and
open lectures with a variety of keynote speakers, as well as a workshop
on the language of Middle Egypt, have been held. Finally, university
curriculums have changed, new publications (articles, catalogues and
books) have appeared and international conferences have taken place.
In this paper, the authors aim to provide an overview of the Egyptological
activity which has occurred in Croatia over the past decade.
Keywords: Egyptian collections in Croatia; Croatian Egyptology;
CAE project; database
the Croato-Aegyptica Electronica Project (CAE)
The ultimate goal of the project is to create a targeted database
of all ancient Egyptian antiquities from the institutional and private
collections of Croatia (Tomorad M. [ed.] 2004-2013).
Short history of the project
The irst phase of the project’s development began in late 2001, when
the idea was irst suggested (Egyptian Antiquties in Croatia: Computerised
DOI: 10.12797/SAAC.18.2014.18.17
284
M. Tomorad, M. Čavka, I. Uranić, K. Šekrst
Processing of Sources and Literature) at the Historical Research, Study
of History and Computerisation international conference (December 1012, 2001, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb,
Zagreb, Croatia). Over the next two years (2002-2003) the irst team
of researchers was established and project development was initiated
(M. Tomorad, I. Uranić, G. Zlodi, H. Gračanin, I. Malus Tomorad,
M. Gračanin). During the same period (with the help of P. Selem, Phd),
we gained the support of all the relevant museums and institutions to begin
a study of their Egyptian collections with the aim of publishing all the material
as an online digital catalogue. After making a successful application (2003)
to the Ministry of Science, Education, Technology and Sport of the Republic
of Croatia, we were in possession of the requisite funding to start the project’s
development in early 2004. After resolving our inancial issues, the project
team was able to commence the second phase of project development.
In the irst half of 2004, the irst project website known as CroatoAegyptica Electronica was created. M. Gračanin designed and programmed
the whole site. A few hundred pages of text written by M. Tomorad,
I. Uranić, H. Gračanin and I. Malus Tomorad were added to the site.
In May 2004, the Croatian version of the website was launched
at http://infoz.fzg.hr/cae. The English version, which difered slightly
from the Croatian, was launched at the end of June 2004. In July 2004,
the CAE database became accessible online.
In September 2004, the site obtained its own domain (www.croatoaegyptica.hr) and the irst version of the database, which consisted
of a selection of 120 artefacts from the Archaeological Museum in
Zagreb, was incorporated into it (Tomorad 2004a). The CAE website was
the irst Croatian educational information website concerning the history
of any civilisation of the world. It included information on: 1. the CroatoAegyptica Electronica project; 2. the history of every Egyptian museum
collection in Croatia; 3. links to the most important Egyptological websites;
4. the development of Egyptology; 5. an ancient Egyptian chronology
from Prehistory to the Arab conquest of Egypt; 6. ancient Egyptian towns
and sites; 7. Egyptian mythology; 8. ancient Egyptian history; 9. the famous
monuments of Egypt; 10. everyday life in ancient Egypt.
The news database was constructed using free PHP and My SQL
software as a powerful open-source programme designed to evolve through
daily updates. It was divided into ive categories: Egyptological discoveries
in the ield, exhibitions (past, current and future), lectures, conferences
and symposiums and new Egyptological books in Croatian. The news section
Current egyptological research in Croatia
285
of the website, which is currently not in service, contained information
on new discoveries in Egypt, announcements of past, current and future
exhibitions, details of lectures, conferences and symposiums on ancient
Egypt in Croatia and of new books, catalogues and guides on ancient
Egyptian history in Croatian (Tomorad 2004b; Tomorad 2006a, 131-142,
172-186, 199-200; Tomorad 2007a; Tomorad 2009). The site quickly became
very popular, which resulted in its nomination for the Croatian scientiic
award for the popularisation of science in 2004. In 2006, the project stopped
receiving the required inancial support, which led to various problems.
In 2007, the news section of the website was hacked and then, in early
2010, we lost our domain due to the introduction of certain new regulations
at CARNet (Croatian Academic and Research Network). At the same time
(early 2010), the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences’ server, which
hosted the site, crashed and since that moment our database ceased to be
accessible. In April 2011, M. Tomorad stopped working at the Faculty
of Humanities and Social Sciences and became an Assistant Professor
at the Department of History at the Centre of Croatian Studies
of the University of Zagreb. As the main editor and the head of the project,
M. Tomorad moved the whole ‘old’ website to a new address hosted
by the Centre for Croatian Studies http://www.hrstud.unizg.hr/sites.cae/.
Development of the CAE database (2004-2012)
Our online CAE database, which was accessible online from July 2004
to January 2010, ofered various kinds of information on the artefacts
(collection, inventory number, origin, date, material, techniques, description,
inscriptions with transliteration and translation, images etc.). It was built
using the M++ application, which is based on MS Access, visual basic
script and C++, and contained more than 20,000 code lines. From early
spring 2004 to late 2008, we managed to analyse and process artefacts
from the Mimara Museum of Zagreb (Collection of Ancient Civilizations),
the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb (Egyptian and Antiquties department),
the Museum of Contemporary Art of Zagreb (the benko Horvat Collection),
the Archaeological Museum of Split, the Archaeological Museum of Istria
in Pula, the Archaeological Museum of Zadar, the Museum of Slavonia
in Osijek, the City Museum of varaždin and a variety of other town
and regional museums with minor collections (Tomorad 2007a; Tomorad
2009). At present, the CAE database contains approximately 3000 analysed,
and documented artefacts. Once inished, the inal product (which will
be available across various media formats) will provide both domestic
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M. Tomorad, M. Čavka, I. Uranić, K. Šekrst
and foreign researchers and cultural institutions with a comprehensive insight
into the rich wealth of Croatian Egyptological material, ofering a quick
practical way to search through the whole inventory. It will also display data
in a suitable manner for the consumption of the general public.
Domestic and international presentation of the project (2003-2012)
The project has been presented at various domestic and international
conferences since early 2003: Geschichte und neue Medien/History and
New Media, 9-11 April 2003, berlin, Germany; Prvi hrvatski simpozij
o nastavi povijesti, 27-29 November 2003, Opatija, Croatia; Third Central
European Conference of Egyptologists, 12-14 May 2004, Warsaw,
Poland; II. kongres hrvatskih povjesničara – Hrvatska i Europa,
29 September – 3 October 2004, Pula, Croatia; Ancient Studies – New
Technology 3: The World Wide Web and Scholarship in Ancient, Byzantine,
and Medieval Studies, 3-5 December 2004, Harrisonburg, virginia, United
States of America; Serbian Archaeological Society – Section for Near
Eastern Archaeology, 20 May 2005, belgrade, Serbia; CIDOC 2005, 24-27
May 2005, Zagreb, Croatia; Informatique et Egyptologie 2006,
8-10 August 2006, Oxford, United Kingdom; VIth Central European
Conference of Egyptology – Egypt 2012: Perspectives of Research,
5-7 July 2012, Cracow, Poland; CIPEG 2012: Collections at Risk: New
Challenges in New Environments, 25-28 September 2012, bruxelles,
belgium.
The future development of the CAE project
The future development of the project is extremely dependent
on the securing of funding from sponsors and/or institutions. The financial
crisis in Croatia is one of the major factors halting project development,
since we have simply been unable to ind anyone to invest in the project.
As far as our theoretical plans are concerned, future project development
can be divided into several phases: 1. the analysis and documentation
of the remaining collections and their entry into the database;
2. the development of the new website, which will contain a few hundred
pages of new texts and images. The majority of the material has already
been prepared by a whole new team of collaborators (M. Tomorad, I. Uranić,
H. Gračanin, I. Malus Tomorad, D. Pernjak, D. Štruklec, M. Diklić,
P. Šćukanec Rezniček, M. Štefanić, K. Šekrst, M. Čavka) with the help
of foreign Egyptologists and Orientalists; 3. the inclusion of the newlycreated website into the online Egyptological journal; 4. the development
Current egyptological research in Croatia
287
and implementation of a completely new online digital CAE catalogue
prepared by G. Zlodi, I. Uranić and M. Tomorad; 5. the implementation
of the CAE database into GEM (The Global Egyptian Museum). The Global
Egyptian Museum (http://www.globalegyotianmuseum.com) was formed
at the beginning of 2003 and, at present, the whole virtual museum contains
almost 20,000 artefacts from museums located all over the world. It was
created originally under the aegis of the CCER (Centre for Computeraided Egyptological Research, Utrecht University), but it is controlled
today by CIPEG-ICOM (Comité International pour l’Égyptologie
du Conseil International des Museés) and the Centre for the Documentation
of Cultural and Natural Heritage (Cultnat) in Egypt; 6. the transliteration and
translation of all Egyptian inscriptions on our artefacts; 7. the documentation
of all private collections of Egyptian antiquties in Croatia; 8. the publication
of a series of catalogues as books and CD-ROMs; 9. the creation of online
interactive historical maps of ancient Egypt from the Prehistoric period
to the end of byzantine rule in Egypt.
M.T.
Analysis of ancient Egyptian artefacts from the museum collections
of croatia
Approximately 3840 ancient Egyptian artefacts are housed in 25 museum
institutions in Croatia (Tomorad 2006a, 6-36; Tomorad, forthcoming), whilst
at least 550 to 700 artefacts are currently in the possession of private owners
(Tomorad 2003a, 78-79; Tomorad 2005, 23; Tomorad 2006a, 37; Tomorad,
forthcoming). During the period from 2004 until the end of 2012, more than
half of the collections were examined and the vast majority of these were
analysed by experts and published in various historical and Egyptological
periodicals. Most of this work was conducted as part of the Croato-Aegyptica
Electronica project.
The biggest collection of ancient Egyptian antiquities is housed
in the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb (Tomorad 2005, 3-11; Tomorad
2003a, 31-48). The museum possesses three diferent collections of artefacts
related to ancient Egypt.
The collection of the Egyptian department contains approximately 2300
artefacts, of which the majority consists of small, plastic art like scarabs,
amulets, shabtis, and statuettes of the gods. There are also valuable examples
of stelae, books of the dead, mummies and sarcophagi. Chronologically,
most of the collection comes from the Middle Kingdom, the New Kingdom,
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M. Tomorad, M. Čavka, I. Uranić, K. Šekrst
the Late period and the Graeco-Roman period. Unfortunately, the precise
provenance of the artefacts is mostly unknown (Monnet Saleh 1970; Tomorad
2006a, 6-10; Uranić 2009). During the period from 2004 until the end
of 2012, all the artefacts from this collection were examined and described
in the CAE database. In 2009, a team of medical doctors led by Mislav Čavka
and the museum’s curator, Igor Uranić, started to examine all of the human
and animal mummies. The results of this examination and analysis were
published in a series of journal articles (see References) and in the museum
catalogue entitled Mumije, znanost i mit [Mummies – Science and Myth]
(Uranić 2012). In 2009, the Egyptian department published a new catalogue
(Uranić 2009) and a typological study of 312 shabtis from the Egyptian
Department was also conducted and later published (Tomorad 2011a).
The Archaeological Museum in Zagreb also stores a variety of artefacts
connected to the worship of Egyptian cults in the territory of Roman
Illyricum. At present, at least 36 such objects may be found in this department
(Tomorad 2003a, 40-42; Tomorad 2005, 7; Tomorad 2006a, 10-11; Tomorad,
forthcoming). The majority are statuettes of gods (Isis, Serapis, HermesThot, Isis-Fortuna, and Harpocrates) and many other artefacts can also be
associated with the worship of the Egyptian deities. In 2004 and 2005, most
of these artefacts were examined and then described on the CAE database.
During recent archaeological seasons, several new artefacts have been
discovered that still need to be examined and analysed.
Finally, the Numismatic Department of the Archaeological Museum
in Zagreb owns a very large collection of currencies. Two collections are
associated with ancient Egyptian civilisation, one containing Ptolemaic
coinage and the other coins from the Alexandrian mint of the Roman
province of Aegyptus. At least 164 examples of Ptolemaic coins from all
periods of the Ptolemaic dynasty are contained within the irst collection
(Tomorad 2005, 8-9; Tomorad 2006a, 12-14; Tomorad, forthcoming),
whilst the numismatic collection from the Roman imperial Alexandria
mint (dating from Augustus to Constantine I) is even larger, as it includes
at least 520 coins (Tomorad 2005, 9-11; Tomorad 2006a, 14-16; Tomorad,
forthcoming). In 2011, a student by the name of Mihaela Diklić examined,
described and analysed 45 coins from the Roman imperial Alexandria mint
in her M.A. thesis.
The Mimara Museum of Zagreb houses the second largest ancient
Egyptian collection in Croatia, which is divided into two collections:
the Collection of Ancient Civilisations (containing 32 ancient Egyptian
Current egyptological research in Croatia
289
artefacts [Tomorad 2006a, 16-17]) and the Glass Collection (with 470 artefacts and glass fragments [Ratković-bukovčan 2001; Tomorad 2006a, 18]).
From 2004 to 2012 the whole collection was examined and then described
on the CAE database, but only parts of it were fully analysed. The whole
Glass Collection, which contains artefacts from the New Kingdom to Late
Antiquity, was published in 2001 (Ratković-bukovčan 2001). Only three
ancient Egyptian artefacts from the Collection of Ancient Civilisations have
been published in the last few years. In 2009 and 2012, these three artefacts
(vessel, inv. no. ATM 230; bowl/plate, inv. no. ATM 231; small bottle,
inv. no. ATM 233) from predynastic Egypt were fully analysed and published
in journals (Tomorad 2009g, 541-544; Tomorad 2013a).
The Archaeological Museum of Istria in Pula houses 39 ancient
Egyptian artefacts, which can be divided into three large groups. The irst
group consists of 15 artefacts connected to the worship of Egyptian cults
in the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The artefacts from this group
were found during archaeological excavations in the Istria area and are
connected with the cults of Serapis, Isis, Isis-Fortuna, Jupiter-Amon, Hathor
and Achelous. The second group consists of seven bronze artefacts, mostly
of a votive nature. The third group consists of 17 artefacts, which are mostly
Egyptian shabtis and amulets that were parts of the collection of an unknown
Austrian donor (Džin 2001, 18-21; Jurkić-Girardi 2001, 5-17; Uranić 2001;
Tomorad 2003a, 48-49; Tomorad 2005, 16-17; Tomorad 2006a, 24-25;
Tomorad 2007b, 43; Tomorad, forthcoming). The whole collection was
fully examined, analysed and then described on the CAE database from
2004 to 2005. Ten artefacts were later reexamined and published in 2007
(Tomorad 2007b).
The Archaeological Museum of Split stores 66 artefacts connected
to the difusion of Egyptian cults in the Roman province of Dalmatia (Selem
1997; Tomorad 2003a, 52-55; Tomorad 2005, 18-19; Tomorad 2006a,
22-24; Tomorad, forthcoming). The whole collection has been fully examined
and analysed by various researchers and all of the artefacts have been
thoroughly described on the CAE database.
The collection of the Archaeological Museum of Zadar possesses
at least 23 Egyptian cult artefacts found during excavations in the territory
of Zadar (ancient Iader) and the surrounding area (Tomorad 2003a, 51-52;
Tomorad 2005, 20; Tomorad 2006a, 27-28; Tomorad, forthcoming). These
artefacts were analysed and then described on the CAE database between
2004 and 2006.
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M. Tomorad, M. Čavka, I. Uranić, K. Šekrst
The Archaeological Department of the Museum of the City of varaždin
stores seven ancient Egyptian artefacts (Tomorad 2002; Tomorad 2003a,
71-72; Tomorad 2005, 20-12; Tomorad 2006a, 30; Tomorad and Uranić
2006a; Tomorad, forthcoming). Six artefacts, which belonged to the noble
Pasthory-varady family, were examined and analysed by M. Tomorad and
I. Uranić (2006a) in 2005 and then published. A small scarab was donated
to the museum after 2007, but it has not yet been examined or analysed
(Tomorad, forthcoming).
The Archaeological Department of the Museum of Slavonia in Osijek
stores ten artefacts connected to Egyptian cults worshipped in the Roman
province of Pannonia (Tomorad 2003a, 73-74; Tomorad 2005, 21; Tomorad
2006a, 29; Tomorad, forthcoming). All of these have been fully analysed
and in 2005 they were described on the CAE database.
The Museum of Contemporary Art of Zagreb houses eleven ancient
Egyptian artefacts (Tomorad 2003a, 70; Tomorad 2005, 21-22; Tomorad
2006a, 28-29; Tomorad, forthcoming). All of them have been analysed
and in 2005 they were described on the CAE database.
The Archaeological Collection of the Franciscan monastery in Sinj
contains six Egyptian artefacts (Selem 1997; Tomorad 2003a, 75-76;
Tomorad 2005, 22; Tomorad 2006a, 31; Tomorad, forthcoming). They have
been analysed several times and in 2005 they were described on the CAE
database.
All the other smaller institution collections have been recently examined
and their artefacts have been listed by M. Tomorad (2003a, 73-76; 2005,
22-23; 2006a, 32-34; forthcoming).
Over the course of 2004 and 2005, the well-known Marović (ex-Carrarabratanić) and Domančić private collections (Selem 1997; Tomorad 2003a,
78-79; Tomorad 2005, 23; Tomorad 2006a, 35; Tomorad, forthcoming)
of ancient Egyptian artefacts were reanalysed and then described on the CAE
database.
Since 2004, specialist studies of shabtis from all the collections have
been conducted and published in various periodicals (Tomorad 2004c;
Tomorad 2006b; Tomorad 2011a; Tomorad 2011b; Tomorad 2012a; Tomorad
2013b).
M.T.
Current egyptological research in Croatia
291
The latest radiological research of the ive ancient Egyptian mummies
and other mummiied remains from the Archaeological museum
in zagreb
Five mummiied human bodies are kept inside the Egyptian collection
of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb (inv. nos 655-658, 667-668, 687:
inventory book of the Egyptian Department of the Archaeological Museum
in Zagreb; Uranić 1994; Uranić 2003a; Uranić 2009, 91-101, 107-112).
The irst one to be supplied was the famous ‘Zagreb Mummy’, which arrived
in 1862 (Rendić-Miočević 1986; Tomorad 2003a, 81-89; Tomorad 2003b;
Uranić 2009, 107-112). A further two mummies (of Shepenun and Kareset)
were part of Franz Koller’s collection, which was purchased by the National
Museum in 1868 (inv. no. 667-668; Monnet-Saleh 1970, 174-181; Uranić
2009, 91, 94). The acquisition of the ‘ifth mummy’, donated by bishop Juraj
Haulik, also dates to the 19th century (inv. no. 666; Tomorad 2003a, 36;
Tomorad 2005, 4), whilst the mummy of Amun’s singer, Kaipamu, was a gift
from the Egyptian government in 1971 (inv. no. 687; Gorenc and RendićMiočević 1974; Uranić 1994; Tomorad 2003a, 36-37, 141-142; Uranić 2003a;
Uranić 2009, 94-97). Apart from the complete human mummies, there are
also some parts of mummies: three heads, three arms and two legs, as well
as ive animal mummies (inv. nos 655-658: inventory book of the Egyptian
Department of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb; Uranić 2009, 97).
Early research using a conventional X-ray was carried out during
the 1970s, but some mysteries concerning the Zagreb mummies which were
left unsolved have now been resolved thanks to modern CT technology.
The results obtained were quite interesting and in some cases drastically
changed our view of the mummies. In December 2012, the Mumije, znanost
i mit [Mummies – Science and Myth] exhibition opened in order to display
all the mummies alongside the results of the research conducted on them
from 2008 to 2011 (16 December 2012 – 1 March 2013; Uranić 2012).
I.U.
Paleoradiological examination of the mummiied remains from
the Egyptian Collection of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb was
carried out at the Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology
of the University Hospital of Dubrava.
All 19 specimens were scanned with two X-ray projections (RadSpeed
Saphire, Shimadzu Europa GmbH, Duisburg, Germany) and using
the CT scanner (Sensation16; Siemens Healthcare, Erlangen, Germany) with
292
M. Tomorad, M. Čavka, I. Uranić, K. Šekrst
a 16 x 0.75 collimation, reconstructed at 0.75mm section thickness and
0.7mm reconstruction increment (RI). In the autumn of 2012, another
mummiied head was scanned by MRI and a total of 17 specimens were
scanned using MR (Magnetom Avanto, Siemens Healthcare, Erlangen,
Germany) to acquire three-dimensional (3D), spoiled gradient-echo based
UTE images (Nielles-vallespin et al. 2007, 74).
Only the published results will be mentioned here. Studies
of the unidentiied mummy have been in progress since 2008 and have most
recently been published in Radiographics (Čavka, Petaros and boščić et al.
2012, 2151) and Collegium Antropologicum (Čavka and Glasnović et al.
2010, 797, 803) and presented at the 1st Bolzano Mummy Congress (Čavka
et al. 2009, 19) and the 18th European Meeting of the Paleopatological
Association (Čavka and boščić et al. 2010, 64; Kavur et al. 2010, 130).
Kareset’s results have been published in Collegium Antropologicum
(Čavka, Petaros and Ivanac et al. 2012, 281) and presented at the 7th
World Congress on Mummy Studies (Čavka and Ivanac et al. 2011, 136).
At the 7th International CROSS (CROatian Student Summit) (Komnenić
et al. 2011, 30), two mummiied heads were presented. Other data,
including CT-MR signal comparison, the psychological components
of paleopathological entities and other forensic results was presented
at the 5th Congress of the Croatian Society of Radiology (Čavka and
Tičinović et al. 2010, 96), the 19th European Meeting of the Paleopathology
Association (Čavka, Petaros and Komnenić et al. 2012, C2-3),
the 3rd Croatian Psychodermatological Congress (Čavka and bušić et al.
2012, 63), the European Congress of Radiology (Čavka and Ivanac et al.
2012, C-2562) and featured in the 22nd International Journal of Legal
Medicine (Petaros et al. 2012, S172).
The ‘ifth mummy’ contains a 40-year old female from the Late period.
Suspected healed fractures of her ulna and radius have been conirmed and
two artefacts were also found within the mummy. These were a 90cm long
metal bar that reinforced the mummy’s lower parts and a tubular structure
in the head (Čavka and Janković et al. 2010, 797). After the irst usage
of a CT-guided biopsy in mummy studies, this was conirmed to be
the monocotyledon stick that had been used during excerebration (Čavka,
Petaros and boščić et al. 2012, 2151). The mummy once called Kareset
(‘the lady of the house’) has been conirmed to be ive centuries older than
previously thought and its male sex has been determined. Lytic changes
scattered across the skeleton indicate the presence of Hand-SchuellerChristian’s disease and this discovery represented the irst case of the use
Current egyptological research in Croatia
293
of clinical MR in diferential diagnosis in paleopathology (Čavka, Petaros
and Ivanac et al. 2012, 281).
Other results have been published in Čavka’s (2013) PhD thesis entitled
Radiological analysis of mummiied remains from the Egyptian Collection
of the Archaelogical Museum in Zagreb.
In 2010, a new hypothesis concerning Akhenaten was proposed.
Its authors proposed the presence of homocystinuria, a disease similar
in appearance to Marfan’s syndrome, but with autosomal recessive inheritance
(Čavka and kelava et al. 2010, 255). The article has been cited several times
and has recently served as a point of reference in several scientiic letters
(Retief and Cilliers 2011, 628; Ashraian 2012, 23; Kelava and Čavka 2012,
58; Čavka and Kelava 2013, 278).
M.Č.
Workshop on the Middle Egyptian language at the Archaeological
museum in zagreb
The autumn of 2012 saw the very irst course of Middle Egyptian take
place in Croatia. Since university syllabi do not ofer many Egyptological
courses and the Linguistics departments tend to focus on Indo-European
languages, Afro-Asiatic languages (speciically Egyptian studies) have often
been neglected. In an attempt to put this right, the Archaeological Museum
in Zagreb continued its successful series of ancient Egyptian thematic lectures
with a workshop focusing on Middle Egyptian and hieroglyphics. Over
a period of two months, Egyptologist, Igor Uranić, and comparative linguist,
Kristina Šekrst, held six two-hour lectures. The number of participants varied
from lecture to lecture, but in the end 20 people (mostly university students)
were able to pass the course and receive oicial certiicates.
The course consisted of both theoretical aspects and more practical
exercises that had to be completed in order to obtain the oicial certiicate.
The irst block of lectures focused on hieroglyphic script, its context within
Afro-Asiatic languages and certain basic grammatical features. The next
thematic block included a thorough analysis of nominal and pronominal
parts of speech alongside related exercises and translations. The third part
of the series centred on the verbal aspect, enabling students to construct
and translate sentences and also to recognise and form diferent tenses
and aspects. The inal lecture was dedicated to the peculiarities of Middle
Egyptian syntax and participants translated fragments and passages from
original Middle Egyptian texts into Croatian and vice versa.
294
M. Tomorad, M. Čavka, I. Uranić, K. Šekrst
Since the group had performed so impressively in meeting the course
objectives, the participants requested an advanced course, which was then
held in March and April 2013. The students were able to further develop their
linguistic skills while studying new grammatical features and peculiarities.
The focus was on text analysis and reading, so the advanced participants
were able to apply their acquired grammatical knowledge and to improve
their familiarity with Middle Egyptian language, texts and culture.
In order to make this course a tradition, the same lectures were held
in the autumn of 2013 all over again, in the hope that the Archaeological
Museum in Zagreb would play a part in the increasing interest in Egyptology
in Croatia. A plan now exists to create a Middle Egyptian textbook in Croatian
for future student perusal.
K.Š.
Public lectures with keynote speakers at the Archaeological Museum
in Zagreb and as part of Croatian Studies at the University of Zagreb
Over the last couple of years, the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb
has organised special public lectures on various topics from ancient history.
In 2012, the following events were held: Amanda-Alice Maravelia’s lecture
on Ancient Egyptian Collections in Greece (Winter 2012), Igor Uranić’s
lectures on Jezik i pismo faraonskog Egipta [Language and Script
of Pharaonic Egypt] (May 2012) and Prvi faroni [The First Pharaohs]
(September 2012) and inally Danijel Rafaelić’s lecture on Amarna na ilmu
[Amarna on Film] (November 2012). At the end of February 2013, beatrix
Gessler-Löhr from the University of Heidelberg presented a lecture entitled
Who discovered the tomb of Sethi I? She also gave a lecture on The New
Kingdom Necropolis of Saqqara Worldwide – Excavating in Museums
for Croatian Studies students at the University of Zagreb (March 1, 2013).
Ancient Egyptian exhibitions in Croatian museums
In mid-April 2005, the new permanent exhibition of the Ancient
Egyptian Department of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb was
opened. The collection consists of 600 selected items from diferent periods
of Egyptian civilisation from the Middle Kingdom to the irst centuries AD.
The exhibition is divided into several categories: bronze statues, sculptures,
papyri, stelae, coins, tomb accessories, jewellery and amulets, cosmetics
and vessels and shabtis. A separate room is dedicated to the Zagreb Mummy
Current egyptological research in Croatia
295
and the famous Liber Linteus Zagrebiensis, the longest known Etruscan text
in the world. both of these items are accompanied by texts and pictorials
(Tomorad and Uranić 2006b). Two guides to the exhibition are published
in Croatian and English (Uranić 2005a; Uranić 2005b). The layout
of the Egyptian exhibition was designed by the architect, Mario beusan,
whilst the man who thought up the concept was Igor Uranić, an Egyptologist
and the curator of the Egyptian Collection (Tomorad and Uranić 2006b).
In July 2012, the Egyptian Collection from the Archaeological
Museum of Dubrovnik exhibition opened in the Museum Narona in vid
near Metković. The exhibition remained open until the end of the summer
of 2012. Selected artefacts from the Egyptian Collection (which contains 197
items in total) were displayed here. They were mostly small votive statuettes
of gods, shabtis, scarabs, amulets and other funerary equipment (Tomorad,
forthcoming).
In mid-December 2012, the new Mumije, znanost i mit [Mummies –
Science and Myth] exhibition opened in the Archaeological Museum
in Zagreb. Whilst the exhibition was running, all human and animal remains
kept in the museum were placed on display. An explanation of the mummifying
procedure, modern medical analysis, MR, radiological and bacteriological
research and of other matters was also provided. The exhibition remained
open until the end of February 2013 (Uranić 2012).
M.T.
university curriculum
At present, there are seven institutions in Croatia that include the history
of ancient Egypt in the courses they have on ofer. The majority only provide
the students with a rudimentary knowledge of ancient Egyptian history and
culture in subjects taken during the irst year of study in a History degree.
History of Art students at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
of the Universtiy of Zagreb can study basic facts regarding ancient Egyptian
art in a subject dealing with the Art of Ancient Civilisations. The Archaeology
and Linguistics courses at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
of the University of Zagreb and the Faculty of Philosophy of the University
of Zadar do not include any subject related to ancient Egyptian history.
Therefore, History students in Croatia seem to be able to gain the most
knowledge of ancient Egypt, but curriculums difer greatly from institution
to institution.
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M. Tomorad, M. Čavka, I. Uranić, K. Šekrst
Since the 2005/2006 academic year, students at the Department
of History at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences of the University
of Zagreb have been able to learn the basics of ancient Egyptian history
in the History of Early Civilisations course (b. Olujić and J. Osterman).
In this course, the development of several of the earliest centres
of civilization (including Egypt, Mesopotamia, Syria, Iran, Anatolia, and
the Eastern Mediterannean) is examined comparatively, diachronically and
synchronically. At the same faculty, full professor Petar Selem gave a series
of lectures entitled Egyptian Religion until his retirement in 2006. However,
since this time nobody has taught a subject speciically related to ancient
Egypt. At graduate level, students can enrol in History of the Ancient East
I (b. Olujić and J. Osterman) and Historical Anthropology of the Ancient
World courses (b. Olujić and J. Osterman).
History students at the Department of History of the University of Pula
can also acquire some knowledge of ancient Egypt in two courses. These are
the mandatory Introduction to the Ancient World course (R. Matijašić) and
the elective History of Ancient Egypt course (K. buršić-Matijašić).
At the Department of History of the Faculty of Philosophy in Osijek,
students may enrol in a course entitled History of Ancient Egypt (Z. Đukić).
At the Faculty of Philosophy in Rijeka, students can enrol in the Cultural
History of the Ancient East course, which contains three lectures on ancient
Egypt (v. Munić).
At the Faculty of Philosophy in Split, students can acquire a basic
knowledge of ancient Egypt in a course entitled History of Ancient
Civilisations (I. vilogorac), which is analogous to the course at the Faculty
of Humanities and Social Sciences in Zagreb.
At the Department of History of the University of Zadar, students can
only enrol in the general History of the Ancient World course, in which they
can attend four lectures on the history of ancient Egypt.
At the Department of History of the Centre for Croatian Studies
of the University of Zagreb, History students could learn about ancient
Egypt from 2005 to 2012 in the History of the Ancient World course
(E. K. Glazer and M. Tomorad), but this course was split into three separate
courses in the 2012/2013 academic year: Prehistory and Early Civilisations
(E. K. Glazer), History and Culture of Ancient Egypt (M. Tomorad)
and History and Culture of the Greek and Roman World (M. Tomorad and
v. vukelić). At both undergraduate and graduate level, there are several
elective courses related to ancient Egypt: Introduction to Egyptological
Studies I (M. Tomorad), History of the Old Testament People (E. K. Glazer),
Current egyptological research in Croatia
297
Myths and Religious Customs of the Ancient World (E. K. Glazer), Burial
Customs and Architecture of Ancient Egypt (M. Tomorad), Sources
of Ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome (M. Tomorad), Historiography
of the Ancient East, Egypt, Greece and Rome (M. Tomorad), History
and Museum Studies (M. Tomorad), Material Sources of Ancient History
(M. Tomorad), Language and Scripts of the Ancient World (E. K. Glazer),
Introduction to Egyptological Studies II (M. Tomorad), Ancient Egypt,
Greece and Rome in Motion Pictures: Real Facts vs. Myths and Fiction
(M. Tomorad). At postgraduate level, PhD students can also specialise
in ancient Egyptian history with various courses relating to research
methodology and work with material sources in the museum collections
(M. Tomorad and J. balen).
M.T.
Publications
The period between 2002 and the end of 2012 was very productive
as a great number of publications dedicated to the history and culture
of ancient Egypt were issued and several new books were published.
The irst of this series was a book by Igor Uranić entitled Stari Egipat:
povijest, književnost i umjetnost drevnih Egipćana [Ancient Egypt:
History, Literature and Art of the Ancient Egyptians] (2002; 2005c,
2nd revised ed.), which was also the irst scientiic book on the subject written
by a Croatian scholar since 1967. A year later, Mladen Tomorad published
Egipat u Hrvatskoj: staroegipatske starine u hrvatskoj znanosti i kulturi
[Egypt in Croatia: Ancient Egyptian Antiquities in Croatian Science and
Culture] (2003a), the irst book about the genesis of the ancient Egyptian
collections of Croatia and the development of Egyptological research
in the country since the middle of the 19th century. In April 2005, I. Uranić
published Egipatska zbirka, vodič and Egyptian Collection Guide, a guide
to the Department of Egyptology at the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb.
Several months later, he also published Ozirisova zemlja i njeni odjeci
na zapadu [The Land of Osiris: Egyptian Mythology and its Echos
in the West] (2005d), which was the irst scientiic book concerning ancient
Egyptian religion and mythology written by a Croatian scholar. In 2005,
vesna Jurkić-Girardi published her book on the ancient cults of Roman
Istria entitled Duhovna kultura antičke Istre. knjiga 1: Kultovi u procesu
romanizacije antičke Istre [Spiritual Culture of Ancient Istria. Book 1:
Cults in the Process of the Romanisation of Ancient Istria]. In 2006, Petar
298
M. Tomorad, M. Čavka, I. Uranić, K. Šekrst
Selem published Helena u Egiptu [Helen in Egypt], his new study of ancient
Egyptian cults in the Graeco-Roman period. In 2008, P. Selem republished
his older works, some of which dated back to the 1960s, in a book entitled
Lica bogova [Faces of the Gods]. After a lengthy re-examination and analysis
of artefacts from the Egyptian department of the Archaeological Museum
in Zagreb, I. Uranić (2009) published them all in a new catalogue in a book
entitled Aegyptiaca Zagrabiensis. Musei Archeologici Zagrebiansis Catalogi
et Monographiae 4 [Aegyptiaca Zagrabiensis. Catalogues and Monographs
of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb 4].
A great number of scientiic articles have also been published in
various domestic and international journals. These articles were written by
A. bugarski-Mesdijan (1), I. Čukman Nikolić (1), M. Diklić (3), Z. Dukat
and I. Mirnik (1), K. Džin (2), K. Giunio (2), E. K. Glazer (1), G. Gradiček
(1), v. Jurkić Girardi (4), R. Koščević (1), R. Menalo (1), H. Malinar (1),
D. Pernjak (2), L. Ratković-bukovčan (2), P. Selem (5), P. Šćukanec
Rezniček (2), K. Šekrst (1), D. Štruklec (2), M. Štefanić (1), M. Tomorad (44)
and I. Uranić (16). These articles covered a wide range of topics dealing with
ancient Egypt: art, architecture, collections, culture, funeral customs and
beliefs, mummiication, history, linguistics, religion, cults and mythology,
everyday life, hunting and ishing and games and sports.
Over the last couple of years, 16 scientiic articles have been written on the
process of mummiication and the analysis of human and animal mummiied
remains from the Egyptian department at the Archaeological Museum in
Zagreb. These articles were written by a team of medical doctors from the
Dubrava University Hospital led by M. Čavka. In 2013 and 2014, ive new
books were intended to be printed (Šekrst and Uranić 2014; Uranić 2014; while
other are in the process of preparation). At the time this article was written, over
40 new scientiic articles written by M. Čavka, I. Čukman Nikolić, M. Diklić,
K. Džin, K. Giunio, E. K. Glazer, v. Jurkić Girardi, D. Pernjak, L. Ratkovićbukovčan, P. Selem, P. Šćukanec Rezniček, K. Šekrst, D. Štruklec,
M. Štefanić, M. Tomorad and I. Uranić were in various stages of preparation
for print and they were expected to be published in the following 12 to 18
months.
M.T.
Current egyptological research in Croatia
299
international conferences
The Department of History of the Centre for Croatian Studies
of the University of Zagreb and the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb
organised the international Research of the History and Culture
of the Ancient Near East and Egypt in Southeast Europe conference from
June 18-20 in 2012. 29 researchers, university professors and custodians
from Croatia, Egypt, Germany, Macedonia, Slovenia, Serbia and the United
States of America participated in the conference and the open table held
on June 20. The main topics of the conference were as follows: 1. the history
of research of the ancient East and Egypt in Southeast Europe; 2. the history
of the ancient East and Egypt in educational curriculums (primary schools,
high schools and universities); 3. current research (archaeology, history,
linguistics, oriental cults and religion); 4. publishing and translations;
5. museum and private collections and museology; 6. current projects and
the usage of information technology (Tomorad 2012b).
M.T.
international summer school of Ancient History and Egyptology
At present, university professors, curators and other scholars in Croatia
are planning to organise an international summer school focused on ancient
history and Egyptology (Zagreb, Croatian Studies and the Archaeological
Museum) with several universities from various countries of the European
Union and the Faculty of Philosophy of the University of belgrade
(Serbia). The plan is to initiate it in either the summer of 2014 or 2015 if all
the paperwork can be completed and appropriate inancial support can be
found. It is now planned that the areas to be covered will be archaeology and
the culture and history of ancient Egypt and the rest of the ancient world.
This will be supported by lectures given by scholars from all over Europe,
Egypt and the Near East.
M.T.
conclusion
Over the last decade, Egyptology in Croatia has inally become
an international matter and our scholars have started to participate
in international conferences and projects. At the same time, the number
of new articles and books has dramatically increased, our scholars have
300
M. Tomorad, M. Čavka, I. Uranić, K. Šekrst
started to publish their work in various international publications and
more and more papers have been published in domestic historical journals.
At the universities, topics and courses related to ancient Egypt have started
to become more common and relevant. In the last couple of years, a number
of new exhibitions have also been organised in various museums. All these
recent and planned activities show that Croatian scholars have a strong
desire to become an important part of the great Egyptological community.
We all hope that this will be a successful undertaking.
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Mladen Tomorad
Croatian Studies (Studia Croatica), University of Zagreb
mladen.tomorad@zg.t-com.hr
Mislav Čavka
Dubrava University Hospital
University of Zagreb, School of Medicine
mislav.cavka@yahoo.com
Igor Uranić
Archeological Museum Zagreb
iuranic@amz.hr
Kristina Šekrst
Croatian Studies (Studia Croatica), University of Zagreb
sekrst@gmail.com
DEbATE ON THE SITE OF QIRYAT ATA IN ISRAEL
- A REJOINDER TO THE ARTICLE
By ELIOT BRAUN PUBLISHEd IN SAAC 16
S T U D I E S I N A N C I E N T A RT A N D C I v I L I Z AT I O N 18
Kraków 2014
Amir Golani
Jerusalem
MORE PERSPECTIVES ON THE LATE
PREHISTORIC SITE OF QIRYAT ATA:
A REJOINdER TO ELIOT BRAUN
Abstract: In a recent SAAC article, Eliot Braun (2012) has published
a critique of my excavations at the late prehistoric site of Qiryat Ata.
Reexamination of a site’s stratigraphy and reinterpretation of archaeological
data are welcome, if their purpose is to truly enhance our understanding
of the history of the site and thus gain a better understanding
of the archaeological periods of its occupation. Such a reevaluation should
be based on factual evidence, exacting analysis and the realization that even
the same data can and is open to diferent interpretation. Reexamination
of the data would strive to ofer accurate and useful conclusions that
could substantially augment our perception of the archaeological record
and be a catalyst for future research and fruitful collegial discussion among
scholars.
The purpose of the following is to address the claims and allegations
raised by Braun in his article. While some points of Braun’s critique
may have their merit and provide a future basis for discussion, examination
of his major points shows them to be basically unfounded.
Keywords: Near Eastern archaeology; Southern Levant; Early Bronze
Age; Qiryat Ata; Stratigraphic interpretation; archaeological methodology
In an article published in SAAC 16 (2012), Eliot braun has presented
a critique of my work undertaken at the late prehistoric site of Qiryat Ata,
located in the Zebulon valley, Israel. This project began in 1990 as the irst
rescue excavation at the site (Area A), conducted under the auspices
of the Israel Antiquities Authority, and was directed by myself along
DOI: 10.12797/SAAC.18.2014.18.18
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A. Golani
with Eliot braun who acted as one of the excavation directors. Numerous
additional excavations were conducted at the site for several years afterwards
by myself and other colleagues (Fig. 1). A inal report for the irst seven
excavation areas (Areas A-G) was published as a monograph (Golani
2003). Since that publication, more excavation areas have seen publication
(Fantalkin 2000 [Area L]; baruch et al. 2007 [Area H]; Abu Hamid 2010
[Area P]; Tabar 2010 [Areas Q, R]; Golani 2013a [Area O]; Golani 2014a
[Area N]; Golani 2014b [Area S]) while more excavations are presently
being prepared for publication by other colleagues (Segal, forthcoming
[Areas T, U]).
Fig. 1. Location map of all excavation areas within the Early bronze Age site and an updated
assessment of the site boundaries in the various periods. Courtesy of the IAA
More perspectives on the late prehistoric site of Qiryat Ata...
309
Was there a Pre-EB I occupation at Qiryat Ata?
The major occupation of the site dates to the Early bronze Age
(henceforth Eb) period in which three primary settlement strata have been
identiied. Strata III-II are associated to a late phase of the Eb I (Eb Ib)
while Stratum I is associated to the Eb II. In addition to inds from
the Eb period, substantial amounts of ceramics, lints and groundstone vessels
dated to the Chalcolithic and the Neolithic periods were occasionally found
throughout many of the loci, though none of the excavation areas to date
has yet produced clear occupational surfaces or architecture of these earlier
periods. Artifacts associated to the Pottery Neolithic period were also found
in disturbed ills upon the bedrock in Area L (Fantalkin 2000). Accordingly,
the excavator of Area L proposed a Neolithic occupation at the site
in that area (Fantalkin 2000). Subsequent publications also noted Neolithic
and Chalcolithic artifacts, most of which originated in Area A (bankirer 2003,
180-181; Golani 2003, 71-72; Khalaily 2003, 220; Rowan 2003, 199-220),
located in proximity to Area L. Most of these artifacts were recovered from
loci associated to Stratum III of the Eb Ib. This stratum, the earliest clear
occupation identiied in Area A, was often found to have been founded upon
the bedrock itself and included several buildings and numerous occupational
surfaces. In lack of clear architectural remains and living surfaces of
the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods, these latter publications all concluded
that a settlement from these earlier occupations was located in the immediate
vicinity.
In his article, braun purports to ofer an ‘expanded occupational
sequence’ for the site that beyond the three major Eb strata deined in the
excavations, ‘is signiicantly diferent’ from the one I presented and includes
an earlier occupation in the Pottery Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods,
stating that I have ‘failed to consider copious evidence of remains of
earlier, in situ occupations’ (braun 2012, 7-8). He further proclaims that his
reevaluation of published data will ofer ‘an expanded archaeological proile
of the site’ in order to ‘present a more clearly focused and enhanced understanding of the site’s place in the late prehistory of the southern Levant’
(braun 2012, 8). According to braun, ‘Golani was unable to discern
the true signiicance of the pre-Eb I pottery he recovered, primarily because
his methodology was geared to mask it (my italics) and probably because
some pre-Eb I pottery types bear rather uncanny resemblance to Eb I types’
(braun 2012, 13).
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A. Golani
The excavation report that braun is referring to (Golani 2003) documents
the presence of ceramic, lint and groundstone remains predating the Eb I
that are also discussed in specialist reports (bankirer 2003; Khalaily 2003;
Rowan 2003). A Neolithic and a Chalcolithic presence at the site was
therefore recognized (Golani 2003, 71-72), yet in all the loci excavated, these
earlier remains were always mixed with Eb material culture inds, which
were the majority in every excavated locus. Even deposits below loors
and foundation levels of the earliest deined strata, such as Stratum III, dated
to the late Eb I, contained ceramics and other inds of that period.
According to braun, ‘late disturbances, especially Eb I construction
in the lowest levels accounts for the admixture of pre-Eb I materials
as residual in the matrix in which the Eb I occupations were unearthed’
(braun 2012, 13). This is one possible interpretation of the evidence, yet
does not in itself prove the actual presence of an earlier occupation in that
speciic area. Conclusive proof of such an earlier occupation, in situ, would
necessarily include architectural remains and/or clear occupational surfaces.
Common and straightforward archaeological methodology would conclude
that a Neolithic and Chalcolithic occupation must be located in proximity
to the excavated area as no clear remains of these periods were found in situ.
The meaning of this latter term is crucial, as it supposes that an archaeological
occupation is dated by the latest associated inds that were not moved from
their original deposition.
braun goes to great lengths to present evidence for a large amount of preEb I artifacts which according to him were ‘diminished [in] their importance
by assigning them to “non-stratiied” deposits, thus efectively relegating
them to background “noise” derived from a nearby region’ (braun 2012,
12). However, none of these artifacts were “diminished” in their importance,
their signiicance is dependent on their context. braun (2012, 12) goes
on to claim that a signiicant percentage of Neolithic lint tools
and Chalcolithic groundstone fragments recovered from Stratum III deposits
in Area A are actually in situ deposits that were essentially disturbed by
later disturbances of the Eb period. Using the term in situ, this claim
assumes that these inds were not moved after their original deposition.
This is of course one possible interpretation that cannot serve to discredit
my own, that the lack of any architectural remains and clear living surfaces
prior to the earliest Eb stratum along with Eb ceramic remains indicates
that any earlier material is probably not in situ. This does not mean that
an earlier occupation predating the earliest Eb stratum did not exist
More perspectives on the late prehistoric site of Qiryat Ata...
311
somewhere within the site of Qiryat Ata, yet only that any such occupation
cannot as yet be conclusively located.
braun (2012, 15, ig. 7) further gives an example of two complete
jars that were reconstructed from fragments recovered upon and above
a loor within an oval structure associated without any doubt to Stratum III
of the late Eb I, claiming they are of Neolithic or early Chalcolithic date.
The state of preservation of these vessels (completely restorable) and their
clear context upon a loor within an Eb I building makes it very probable
that they are in situ deposits associated to that building, clearly dated
to the late Eb I by its plan and other associated inds. Despite numerous
parallels for these vessels that serve to irmly place them within the repertoire
of the late northern Eb I (Golani 2003, ig. 4.8: 6), braun (2012, 13) notes
that some pre-Eb I pottery types do resemble Eb I forms and he chose to
redraw and re-publish these vessels, accentuating features that may suggest
an earlier date (braun 2012, igs 7, 8). As these vessels were found upon
a loor associated to a building of clear Eb I association, their ‘uncanny
resemblance’ to Eb I vessels may simply indicate that they are of Eb I date,
as the parallels given to them also appear to suggest.
braun may have realized that his sweeping and forceful allegations
may not stand a critical appraisal themselves. His claims of an undetected
in situ pre-Eb occupation based only on the presence of scattered artifacts
would have to be bolstered by the inding of architectural remains that could
be ascribed to a pre-Eb occupation and this is precisely what he proceeds
to claim (braun 2012, 18-19).
braun assigns two walls in Area A that are associated to Stratum III
(W517, W504) to a pre-Eb stratum on the basis of their slightly lower
elevation to other recognized Stratum III remains and because they do
not appear to be a part of a clearly ordered building plan. The occupation
in Area A was positioned on a mild slope. Therefore, architectural features
of the same constructional phase can and will often be found at diferent
heights. For example, W517, found downslope to W516, is interpreted
as a supporting terrace wall (and not a peripheral wall) for an oval building
of which W516 and W522 are the main remnants (Golani 2003, 23).
The architecture in Area A was a dense and compact agglomeration
of remains, with later building phases often dismantling earlier phases
and adapting selected portions into a new plan. In Area A, the earliest
architectural remains of Phase IIIb included a few walls of unclear plan
that braun claims belong to a pre-Eb I building phase. Identiication
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A. Golani
of what is earlier and later in a constructional sequence comprises much
of the ‘nuts and bolts’ of archaeological methodology in the ield, while
the speciic dating of each constructional phase is reliant on inds that may
be associated to each phase. Excavation (L46) next to and below the base
of the two walls proposed by braun as being pre-Eb I structures produced
Eb I ceramic remains. These facts appear to indicate that these are not
necessarily ‘likely’ remains of pre-Eb I structures (braun 2012, 18).
In light of the fact that pre-Eb I inds have so far been found only in mixed
contexts, none of which are associated to architectural remains or occupational
surfaces, an occupation from the Neolithic or Chalcolithic period at the site
can at present only be suggested, but not conclusively proven. Occupation
during these periods may even be likely in the very immediate region,
possibly near or even adjacent to Area A itself, as the evidence of ceramic
and lithic inds appears to suggest, yet this same evidence is at present still
circumstantial. As inds of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods have
not been disregarded in the inal report, braun’s remarks cannot serve
to ‘signiicantly expand the occupational sequence’ at the site, yet they
do provide a point of departure for examination how and why we may
interpret archaeological data.
Should the stratigraphic proile of Qiryat Ata be considered anew?
The architectural remains in Area A at Qiryat Ata included architectural
elements of the three main strata (III-I) identiied throughout the site, with
Strata II being clearly superimposed upon Stratum III. both strata III and
II are dated by associated inds to the late Eb I. braun states that my claim
for two successive strata of the Eb I is ‘based on interpretation rather
than layered deposits as nowhere was deinitive evidence of a Stratum II
building found superimposed on remains of Stratum III’. He then proceeds
to determine that ‘there is no good evidence for superimposition of deposits’
(braun 2012, 20-21, 23). A ‘single possible exception’ (braun 2012, 21)
is building 4, a complete rectangular building with rounded outer corners
assigned to Stratum II that is directly superimposed above an elliptical
building of Stratum III after the latter had undergone a violent destruction.
If the rounded corner structure (building 4) is indeed to be attributed
to Stratum II, then it appears that this would constitute ‘deinitive evidence’
of Stratum II directly superimposed over Stratum III.
Claiming that the ‘the chrono-cultural ascription [of building 4] …
is of dubious bona ides, neither loors nor artifacts of any date were associated
More perspectives on the late prehistoric site of Qiryat Ata...
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with [it]’ braun (2012, 21) suggests that this rounded-corners building
is to be associated to Stratum I of the Eb II, remains of which were identiied
in topsoil clearance immediately above building 4. Ceramic material from
a loor (L24) within building 4 and another related surface (L33) nearby,
may be dated to the late Eb I (Golani 2003, igs 4.2: 13, 29, tab. 4.14-4.15),
yet braun apparently did not notice this. Notably, while elliptical buildings
are generally considered as characteristic of the early Eb I and into the late
Eb I period (braun 1989), rounded-corner buildings are an architectural
phenomenon of the late Eb I and into the beginning of the Eb II period
(Golani 1999). More signiicantly, identical rounded corner structures
have also been found in Areas D, E, and N at Qiryat Ata (Golani 2003,
plans 2.11, 2.15 [Areas D, E]; Golani 2014a: plans 1, 2 [Area N]).
In all three areas, these buildings were dated by associated in situ inds such
as whole ceramic vessels upon their loors to the late Eb I as well. In all three
areas, these buildings were also overridden or cut by rectilinear structures
that are associated to Stratum I of the Eb II. Moreover, these buildings
of Stratum II found in diferent areas of the site are all of similar construction
and identical orientation. The association of all these rounded corner
buildings to Stratum II at Qiryat Ata is based not only on their similarity,
but also on the fact that they are all dated by associated material to the late
Eb I and are all immediately post-dated by Eb II remains. Even if building
4 in Area A was not datable by associated inds, its similarity and identical
orientation with other Stratum II buildings found throughout the site and its
stratigraphic position below Stratum I and above a building of Stratum III,
make its association to Stratum II inevitable.
During the Eb I and Eb II periods, elliptical buildings of the early
and late Eb I are often replaced by rounded-corner structures of the late
Eb I and early Eb II which are in turn often replaced by wholly rectilinear
structures during the Eb II (Golani 1999). This evolutionary process
is broadly representative of architectural development during this period
as conceded by braun (2012, 21) yet was never proposed as being an absolute
paradigm. braun’s diiculty appears to stem from his refusal to accept that
Strata II and III are superimposed one atop the other as is clearly found
in Area A (Golani 2003) and also in Area O (Golani 2013a).
braun’s claim of no real continuity at Qiryat Ata during the late Eb I
period thus remains unfounded as does his denial of the three stage
architectural evolution that characterizes and is linked to the three major
strata at the site. His unwillingness to separate Strata III and II into two
successive but distinct occupational episodes within the late Eb I may stem
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from chronological considerations that seek to limit the length of the late
Eb I occupation at the site.
Was there a continuity of occupation during the EB I and into
the EB II periods at Qiryat Ata?
The Eb settlement at Qiryat Ata appears to have been fairly continuous
from the late Eb I in Strata III-II and into the early Eb II as exempliied
in Stratum I. Though the transition between Stratum III and Stratum II
is punctuated by a violent destruction in Area A, the temporal continuity
between Strata III and II is based not only on the direct superimposition
of their archaeological deposits that have so far been identiied in two
excavation areas (A and O), but also on the near identity of their ceramic
assemblages (Golani 2003, 243). While the former is strongly suggestive
of but does not necessarily constitute temporal continuity as noted by braun
(2012, 24), the latter does indicate that they are both of the same temporal
cultural horizon so that a temporal continuity between the two strata
is probable.
braun (2012, 24-27) also contests the continuity in occupation between
Strata III-II of the late Eb I and Stratum I of the Eb II. braun argues that
the presence of a late form of Gray burnished Ware (GbW) found in both
Strata III and Stratum II (Wright’s [1958] Types 3 and 4) indicates that
the late Eb I assemblage of Strata III-II at Qiryat Ata should be assigned
to the early portion of the late Eb I and cannot be stretched all the way
to its end, a claim that would distance it, and the Strata III-II occupation
of the Eb Ib, away from the late Eb I – Eb II transition. Early types of GbW
(Wright’s Types 1 and 2) are generally agreed as being indicative of the early
Eb I (Eb IA). Wright’s GbW Types 3 and 4 are indeed typical of the late
Eb I, their association to an early phase of the late Eb I would thus hinge
on a certain continuity of this specialized ware from the early to the late
Eb I. The association of early types of this ‘highly specialized’ family
of bowls to the early Eb I period would thus indicate that the early and
late forms of GbW at least spanned the transition from the early to the late
Eb I (Eb IA-Eb Ib). The duration and speciic chronological framework
of the Eb I period, in all its phases and subphases, is a complicated issue
that is still debated (cf. Yekutieli 2000; Yekutieli 2001; Regev et al. 2012;
Golani 2013b), so that the actual chronological extent of the late Eb I
in the north, as well as the date for the beginning of the Eb II in this same
region, is still obscure. Recent radiocarbon dates do place the beginning
More perspectives on the late prehistoric site of Qiryat Ata...
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of the Eb II at around 3000 bCE or only very slightly later (Regev et al.
2012), a date that is generally agreed upon, yet is not necessarily relevant
for all of the southern Levant as at some sites the Eb II may have begun
slightly earlier and at some slightly later. The presence of two successive
occupational strata of the late Eb I at Qiryat Ata (Strata III and II) do suggest
a substantial amount of time for the settlement at Qiryat Ata during the late
Eb I and could allow for its existence to the very end of this period.1
Stratum I remains of the Eb II in all the excavation areas at Qiryat
Ata were positioned immediately upon those of Stratum II and in several
instances the architectural remains of both Strata III and II were evident
to the Stratum I builders who incorporated them into their own constructions,
dismantled them or directly cut into them. This does suggest that a minimal
amount of time elapsed between the two settlements, though nowhere have
I claimed that a direct temporal continuity with no hiatus took place between
Stratum II of the late Eb I and Stratum I of the Eb II.
The chronological placement of the Stratum I occupation within
the early portion of the Eb II period is also contested by braun (2012,
26-27). That Stratum I should be placed within the early Eb II is suggested
by the apparently short hiatus between Strata II and I and the large proportion
of North Canaanite Metallic Ware (NCMW) associated to Stratum I that
comprises up to 47% of the entire assemblage, as opposed to non-NCMW
wares (Golani 2003, 147). This percentage of NCMW ware is a mean average
from excavation areas A-G where a statistical analysis has been carried
out; the actual percentage is probably much higher when a speciic area
at the site with Stratum I remains is examined that does not have a previous
occupation in the late Eb I (see for example in Area G, where the earliest
and only occupation, founded upon the bedrock, dates to the Eb II [Stratum I]
and the amount of metallic ware reaches 81.7%, see Golani 2003, tab. 4.7;
see also Area S, where the amount of metallic ware of Phases 1-3 dated
to the Eb II and founded on virgin soil with no previous occupation
in the Eb I is 51.7%, see Golani 2014b, 81). Growing indications
for the presence of ‘proto-metallic ware’ in the region of the Jordan
valley during a period attributed to an Eb I – Eb II transitional phase
(Paz et al. 2009) indicate the very initial appearance of this ware in this
region only. However, this phenomenon is not found in the western Galilee
The presence of early forms of GbW (Wright’s Types 1 and 2) at Ashqelon barnea
Strata Iv and III, which are dated by C14 dates to 3500-3300 bC and 3200 bC at the latest
appears to indicate that late forms of GbW could not have appeared before 3300-3200 bC.
This would provide a timespan of at least 200 years for the production and use of these early
forms of specialized ware.
1
316
A. Golani
and northern coastal plain. A sharp decline in the amount of NCMW
is a characteristic of the Eb III (Greenberg 2002, 44-48; Getzov 2006, 110)
and according to the latest radiocarbon research, the Eb II period itself
appears to have been very short-lived (Regev et al. 2012, 558-559) lasting
no more than 100-200 years. The very intense Stratum I occupation during
the Eb II at Qiryat Ata, at times depositing over 1.5m of occupational debris
in the central regions of the site and including several sub-phases, appears
to show that this was not necessarily a short-lived occupation and may have
lasted the entirety of the Eb II period as well.
braun’s attempt to discredit or minimize any claim for continuity
from the late Eb I and into the Eb II periods at Qiryat Ata thus appears
to fall short of its purpose and remains unconvincing. The massive appearance
of NCMW during Stratum I is a veritable revolution in the material culture
of the site in the transition from Stratum II of the late Eb I to Stratum I
of the Eb II, yet the abruptness of this transition does not mean that
Stratum II and Stratum I were separated by a lengthy amount of time.
The urbanization process at Qiryat Ata
braun continues by criticizing our conclusions concerning the urbanization process that Qiryat Ata went through at the transition between
the third and the second millennium bC. The whole question of what constitutes
urbanization is complex and multi-faceted and is far beyond the scope of this
paper. braun (2012, 29) rightly claims that ‘large aggregations of populations
do not, ipso facto, create urban environments’ yet the bottom line on what
constitutes urbanization is the creation of a complex social organization
with a clearly multi-layered hierarchical society. The archaeological record
at Qiryat Ata ofers a wealth of deinitive and not necessarily interpretive
evidence for this. For most scholars, the clear presence of an Eb II fortiication
wall revealed in Stratum I of Area O (Golani 2013a) would suice in proving
that by Stratum I the community at Qiryat Ata had become urbanized,
yet braun also seeks to discredit our approach that the urbanization
process is evident from other factors notable in the archaeological record
of the site.
These include several phenomena found throughout Strata III-I
at Qiryat Ata as well as at other sites throughout the southern Levant.
The gradual evolution of architectural styles from curvilinear to rectilinear
with rounded corners and then to wholly rectilinear plans during the Eb I
and into the Eb II expresses the conformity of building styles to a more
More perspectives on the late prehistoric site of Qiryat Ata...
317
crowded and ordered urban plan (cf. Golani 1999). This phenomenon is not
a function of the urbanization process but rather an outcome – the adaptation
of architectural styles in order to better function within a crowded and
ordered urban environment. ‘Pre-planning’ at the site is not apparent
merely in the existence of regular alleyways between buildings that are
necessarily somehow separated from one another, but is the outcome of these
buildings sharing the same orientation. That in itself is deinitive evidence
of pre-meditated planning and its implementation during Strata II-I.
Population growth at Qiryat Ata is evident not only in its rapid growth
in size in the transition from Strata III-I (Fig. 1), but also in the gradual
creation of more crowded building environments with smaller rooms.
This is also clearly seen in other forms of archaeological evidence at the site.
As the urbanization process progressed, the economy became more marketoriented and the economic conditions for most of the inhabitants appear
to have worsened, while the evidence also points to the rise of elites that
appear to have segregated themselves from the rest of the population (cf. Faust
and Golani 2008). All these factors are deinitive evidence for development
of a complex hierarchical social organization at Qiryat Ata.
It is thus puzzling why the urbanization process at the site is called
into question, as braun’s (2012, 30-33) next observations on the site and
its environs now assume the opposite and appear to agree with our own,
that the site did undergo an urbanization process and was fully urbanized
by Stratum I of the Eb II (braun 2012, 30-31). This calls into question
the whole purpose of braun’s article as he is now assuming the very
conclusions he was trying to debunk. braun’s article does not appear
to present a very diferent picture from the one already published.
318
A. Golani
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Amir Golani
Israel Antiquities Authority
golani@israntique.org.il
Editorial Note
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