Ascomycetes: Eurotiales:-

Many fungi of economic importance - including Aspergillus and its

perfect stages and Penicilium and its perfect stages.

Ascomycetes: Helotiales:-

e.g. Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (a soil fungus; asexual reproduction;

sclerotia, sexual reproduction).
Fox, R.T.V.(1995) Brown Rot. The Mycologist, 9(2), p.85.

Other related fungi:

Sclerotinia fructigena* (Monilia fructigena) brown mould of apple.
Sclerotium rolfsii (Southern blight of tomatoes).

Fox, R.T.V.(1996) Sclerotinia diseases. The Mycologist, 10(1), p.40.

  

Taphriniomycetes: Taphriniales:- e.g. Taphrina deformans (peach leaf

curl)
 
 KINGDOM FUNGI - BASIDIOMYCOTA
The second largest group of fungi, approximately 3,000 species.
Including most of the large conspicuous toadstools as well as many
microfungi and two orders of plant pathogens. Many form mycorrhizal
associations with trees.

Hyphae septate, clamp connections. Produce basidiospores from a

basidium.
Asexual spores (teleutospores, uredospores, pycnidiospores and
ascidiospores) are also produced.
Classification of the Basidiomycetes:

1. Form of the basidium - aseptate or septate.

2. Size of the fruiting body.
3. Degree of exposure of the fruiting surface (or hymenium).

This gives three classes: (1) Basidiomycetes.

                                     (2) Ustomycetes (smuts).
                                     (3) Teliomycetes (rusts).

1. BASIDIOMYCETES:
Basidia in extensive hymenia which are exposed when mature.
Basidiospores explosively released. Largest group of the Basidiomycota.
Apseptate basidia; large fruiting body. Saprophytic, symbiotic or
parasitic.
Three orders: Agaricales, Aphyllophorales and Tulasnellales.

Agaricales: Mushrooms and Toadstools:

Tricholmataceae,  see The Mycologist (1991) 5(1), p.5-10. 

e.g. Armillaria mellea Intimi, M.G.(1993) Observation on the in vitro
Marasmius oreades  (Fairy Ring) development of Armillaria carpophones, The
Mycologist, 7(2) p.18-24. 
Amanitaceae,  Daughter, J.C. & Ricult, J.P.M.(1993) Fungal
e.g Amanita phalloides  madness - from dream to nightmare. 
Amanita muscaria *  The Mycologist, 7(4), p.195-6. [Also see
dossier in OLC] 
Agaricaceae,  Scrase, R.(1995) Cultivating the mushroom -
e.g. Agaricus bisporus (the common the potential. The Mycologist, 9(1) , p.18-19. 
cultivated mushrom) e.g.Lepiota sp.  
Coprinaceae,  Brand, A.W. & Pegler, D.N.(1991) Coprinus
e.g. Coprinus spp.  lagopides, The Mycologist, 5(2), p.87. 
Boletaceae,  Colyer, R.(1993) Growing and showing exotic
e.g. Boletus spp.  mushrooms. The Mycologist, 7(2), p.71-72.

Grundwell, E.(1987) The unnatural history of the Fly Agaric, The

Mycologist, 1(4), p.178-181.
Ingold, C.T.(1993) Fan vaulting in Agarics, The Mycologist, 7(2), p.58-59.
Henry, J.(1993) Deadly delicacies, The Biologist, 40(4), p.158-160.
Life Phases of a Toadstool:-
1. Spore germinates to give perennial mycelium in the soil. Fruiting
bodies are not necessarily produced every year.
2. Fruiting body production - life-span varies from a few days to three to
four months.
3. Spore production and dispersal. Spores are shot explosively off gill
under cap. They then fall under the influence of gravity.
Example of the life cycle of a toadstool,
e.g. Amanita muscaria, Armillaria mellea.

see also article on the liberation mechanisms of basidiospores;

Ingold, C.T.(1990) The ballistospore, The Mycologist, 4(1), p.36-37.

Kingdom Fungi - Basidiomycota (2)

Types of  Toadstool:

Members of the genus Amanita - some, but not all, poisonous. Many, e.g.
Amanita muscaria symbiotic with trees, forming Mycorrhizae.

Genus Coprinus - spore dispersal often by deliquiescence of gills.

Common on dung (coprophilus).
[Henrici, A. & Laessoe, T.(1993) Coprinus stranglianus. The Mycologist,
7(2), p.8]

Family Boletaceae: Distinguished by having pores NOT gills. Many

(including Boletus edulis) are edible and good. Many mycorrhizal.

Aphyllophorales: includes

Polypoaceae, Heterobasidion annosum * [Formes annosus] 

e.g Piptoporus betulinus * [Polyporus betulinus] 
(Schwarze, F.(1993) Piptoporus betulinus (Bull,F) Karsten - Birch
polypone or razor strop fungus. The Mycologist, 7(3) p.122-23. 
Ganoderma applanatum. 
Formes formentarius (the hoof or tinder fungus) 
(Schwarze, F.(1994) Wood-rotting fungi, The Mycologist, 8(1) 
Hydnaceae, Hydnum repandrum.
e.g. 
Clavariaceae, Clavaria spp. 
e.g.
Stereaceae, e.g Stereum purpureum.

Heterobasidium annosum [formerly Fomes annum]

   Probably the most destructive disease in commercial forests in Britain.

Piptoporus betulinus (Birch bracket fungus)

   Very common wherever birch is growing.

Tulasnellales:
includes Auriculariaceae, e.g. Auricularia auricola (Jews ear fungus)

Brand, A.W.(1988) Profiles of fungi, numbers 13 and 14, The Mycologist,

2(3), p.110-111.
Lacsecle, T. & Spooner, B.(1994) The uses of Gasteromycetes, The
Mycologist, 8(3), p.154-159.
Basidia in hymenia which are not exposed. Basidiospores released by
distintergration of basidia.
Probably form a class. Unusual (if not bizarre) shapes and forms.

Basidia on hymenia not exposed at maturity - spores released by decay

or other means (e.g. eating by animals).

Orders include:-

Lycoperdales,     e.g. Lycoperdon spp.*       Langermandia gigantea

      Geastrum spp.            Bovista spp.
  
e.g. Cyathus spp. 
Nidulariales,        Sphaerobolus spp. 
  
e.g. Phallus impudicus - The Stinkhorn. 
Phallales,       Mutinus caninus.

Francis, S.(1989) Stinkhorns, The Mycologist, 3(4), p.190.

Lycoperdon spp. (see article: Ing, B.(1989) Puffballs. The Mycologist, 3(3)

p.126-127.)

Ustomycetes - The Smut Fungi:-

Ustilaginales;

All obligate plant pathogens. All have septate basidia. May have several
types of asexual spores.
Systemic infection characterised by production of black asexual spores -
known as 'smut spores'.
Loose smut on wheat - Ustilago nuda (see further notes in Plant Disease
section).
Smut on campion, primrose, etc - Ustilago violacea.
Hormone effects.

Tilletia caries (Cover smut, Stinking smut, Bunt)

- see further notes in Plant Disease section.

Most important disease of wheat until advent of mercury based seed

treatments in the early 1920's. Systemic infection - seed-borne.
Superficial contamination of seed coat. There has been a resurgance of
this disease since the banning of mercury based seed treatments in the
1980's.

Teliomycetes

Urediniales - The Rust Family:-

All obligate plant pathogens. Possibly the most important group of plant
pathogens. Many species - world wide distribution.
Septate basidia grow from thick-walled resting spores or teleutospores.
Ancient origin. Complex life-cycles - up to five spore types. May have
two hosts - alternate hosts (see lifecycle).
e.g.
Hemelia - Coffee leaf rust.
vastatrix 
Puccinia - Yellow (stripe) rust on wheat (most important rust disease on wheat in
striiformis  the UK -see further notes in Plant Disease section)
Puccinia - Black stem rust of wheat. (see further notes in Plant Disease section)
graminis
Puccinia - Brown rust. (see further notes in Plant Disease section)
recondita
Cronartium - White pine blister rust. (see dossier in OLC).
ribicola
Uromyces sp. - Bean rust
Spooner, B.M. & Fox, R.T.V.(1993) Pelargonium rust, The Mycologist,
7(3), p.149.
Dennis, R.W.G.(1993) Pelargonium rust in England, The Mycologist, 7(3),
p.150-151.
Fox, R.T.V.(1995) Fungal foes in your garden - Mint rust, The Mycologist,
9(4), p.184.
 Mitosporic fungi

KINGDOM FUNGI - MITOSPORIC FUNGI

(previously Deutermycotina or Fungi Imperfecti)

The Mitosporic fungi are a large, morphological grouping which do not

form a 'natural' or 'phytocentric group', i.e. individual members are NOT
clearly related. This important group of fungi comprises over 17,000
species. Probably many still unidentified. Soil organisms.
Also important as:
(a) casual agents of plant diseases.
(b) casual agents of animal/human diseases.
(c) biodeteriogens.
(d) sources of antibiotics.
(e) sources of other industrial chemicals.
The sexual stage of fungus is sometimes called the perfect stage.
Members of the group lack a sexual stage and are therefore called
'imperfect'.
Some fungi were first identified without a sexual stage and given an
'Imperfect' name at a later stage they have been found to have a
'perfect' stage and the perfect stage is then named. So some fungi have
two names:  

Perfect Stage Imperfect Stage

(teleomorph)  (anamorph)
Hypocrea Gliocladium or
Ceratocystis Trichoderma
Eurotium Graphium
Corticium solani Aspergillus
Rhizoctonia solani
Because the Mitosporic fungi lack a sexual stage, classification is difficult
as it is based on asexual reproduction and is therefore artificial - the
structures of which do not reflect true relationships. Therefore fungi
placed close together in a class or genus may not be closely related.
They merely look alike (a 'form class', phenotypic).
The Mitosporic fungi have probably the lost their ability to reproduce
sexually because of intense competition between organisms in the soil.
The picture is further complicated because individual species may;
(a) undergo name changes.
(b) be classified in more than one place.
Also some writers (Webster) use an ecological classification.
Recent advances in molecular biology have shown that many of the
Mitoporic fungi are actually related to Ascomycetes, etc, however it is
believed that some species which undergo the parasexual cycle have
taken independent evolutionary paths and will remain permanently
unconnected.
This lack of sexual or 'perfect' stage would put these fungi at an
evolutionary disadvantage (the lack of genetic variation would impair
their ability to survive) were it not for the evolution of a different system,
the Parasexual Cycle (first followed in Glasgow in 1952).
In the parasexual cycle genetic mixing occurs as a result of random
chromosome movements.
The Parasexual Cycle:-
1. Random fusion of haploid (n) nuclei in a heterokaryon to form diploid
(2n) nuclei.
2. Simultaneous multiplcation of N + 2n nuclei. Some crossing-over in 2n
nuclei. All nuclear division by Mitosis.
3. Occasional faulty segragation during mitosis leads to the formation of
some 2n + 1 nuclei and some 2n - 1 (aneuploid) nuclei.
4. The 2n + 1 nuclei are unstable and lose their +1 over successive
division. The 2n - 1 nuclei are unstable and lose their 'spare'
chromosomes resulting in the formation of n nuclei.
    Result: "new" 2n nuclei are formed
                 "new" n nuclei are formed........... NO MEIOSIS HAS OCCURED!
The phenotypic classification is based on the form of the asexual spores
(see diagram under ascomycota).
Criteria used are:
(a) No spores at all.
(b) Budding, i.e. yeast-like.
(c) Single spore heads: (i) Brushes.
                                      (ii) Sporodochia.
                                     (iii) Pycnidia; Acervuli.
Summary:-
Mitosporic Fungi are divided into three phenotypic form classes on the
basis of the type and structures of asexual reproduction (Phenotypic).
1. Blastomycetes: Yeast-like
         Cryptococcales
         Sporobolomycetales
2. Hyphomycetes: Spores produced singly, on stalks or gathered into
bunches
         Agonomycetales
         Hyphomycetales
         Stilbellales (synnemata, coremia)
         Tuberculariales
3. Coelomycetes: Spores in definite structures - mainly plant pathogens
         Sphaeropsidales (pycnidia)
         Melanconiales (acervuli)
1. Blastomyctes:
Yeast-like. May be dimorphic. No important plant pathogens but
important phylloplane organisms and human pathogens.
(a) Cryptococcales

e.g  Rhodotorula spp.  - pink spoilage agents, common in air spora.

Candida albicans  - normal part of skin and gut mycoflora.

Opportunistic pathogens, causing a wide range of superficial and
deep seated infections.
Predisposing factors: Debilitation; drugs; congenital deficiencies of
immune system.
Candida albicans (dimorphism) [see section on Fungal Diseases in
Humans]
e.g. Blastomyces dermitidis (N.American Blastomycosis)
       Blastomyces brazilensis (S.American Blastomycosis)
(b) Sporobolomycetales: Phylloplane. Shadow yeasts.
      e.g. Sporobolomyces spp.
2. Hyphomycetes
    Asexual spores not collected into specialised groups or structures
(sporocarps). Spores are produced singly, on stalks, or gathered in
bunches or totally absent. There are four orders:
(a) Agonomycetales; (mycelia sterilia)
     No (or very rare) sporing structures. However, may produce
overwintering structures, for example, scletoria.
     e.g. Rhizoctonia cerealis [formerly R.Solani] (Sharp eyespot of
cereals)
            Sclerotium rolfsii (Southern blight of tomatoes, diseases of
gladioli and other bulbs).
(b) Hyphomycetales;
     6,000 species. Conidiophores not organised as sporodochia or
synnemata. Main group of Hyphomycetes.
     e.g. Arthrobotrys spp. (nematode traps)
            Botrytis cinera* (Grey mould of tomatoes)
Fox, R.(1993) Grey mould, The Mycologist, 7(4), p.194.
Helminthosporium spp. (Pyrenophora)
Helminthosporium graminis (Net blotch)
Helminthosporium avenae (Leaf stripe of oats)
Alternaria solani (Early blight of potatoes / tomatoes)
Alternaria tenuis* - see diagram below
Cephalosporium = Acremonium
Rhynchosporium secalis
Cladosporium spp.
Cladosporium herbarum* - see diagram below
Cladosporium resinae = Hormoconis resinae = Amorphotheraca resinae
(perfect)
Geotrichum candidum - Pathogenic to man
Penicillium spp.*  see diagram under Eurotiales (dossier in OLC)
Aspergillus spp.* see diagram under Eurotiales (dossier in OLC)
Trichoderma viride - see diagram below
Stachybotrys atra
Curvularia spp.* - see diagram below
Paecilomyces spp.* - see diagram below
Pseudocucosporella herpotrichoides (when not producing sexual organs)
                   (see also Tapesia yallunde - dossier in OLC)
and various species causing ringworm.
(c) Stilbellales;
     500 species. Conidiophores in synnemata.
     e.g. Graphium spp.

Synnemata or macronematous conidiophore consisting of a parallel

bundle of dark hyphae branching at their tips to form conidiogenous
cells and chains of conidia.
(Graphium includes the imperfect stage of Ceratocystis ulmi, Dutch Elm
disease, now renamed Ophiostoma ulmi.)
(d) Tuberculariales;
      600 species. Conidiophores in sporodochia.
      e.g. Fusarium nivalis (Snow mould of lawns)

See notes on mycotoxins;

Isaac, S.(1994) What are mycotoxins and how harmful are they? The
Mycologist, 8(2) p.91.
3. Coelomycetes:-
    7,000 species. Conidia in pycnidia or acervuli.
(a) Sphaeropsidales;
     Conidia in pycnidia. All parasitic on green plants.
   

    e.g. Septoria nodorum*   (Glume blotch on   See also dossier in

cereals)  OLC
           Septoria tritici  
           Aschocyta pisii    (Blight on peas)
           Phomopsis spp.
           Phoma spp.*
 
(b) Melanconiales
     Conidia in acervuli, e.g. Gleosporium spp. (causing rot of stored
apples)
                                         Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Bean
anthracnose)

An acervulus usually found buried in, and breaking through plant

epidermal and sub-epidermal tissue.